{"id":10162,"date":"2024-05-09T06:58:49","date_gmt":"2024-05-09T06:58:49","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/ccnci.org\/?p=10162"},"modified":"2024-05-09T07:03:57","modified_gmt":"2024-05-09T07:03:57","slug":"%e5%93%b2%e5%ad%a6%e4%b8%8e%e5%9c%a3%e7%bb%8f_%e8%ae%b2%e4%b9%89_04_%e5%93%b2%e5%ad%a6%e7%9a%84%e4%b8%bb%e8%a6%81%e5%88%86%e6%94%af%ef%bc%88%e8%8c%83%e5%9b%b4%ef%bc%89%ef%bc%9a%e5%bd%a2%e8%80%8c","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/ccnci.org\/?p=10162","title":{"rendered":"\u54f2\u5b66\u4e0e\u5723\u7ecf_\u8bb2\u4e49_04_\u54f2\u5b66\u7684\u4e3b\u8981\u5206\u652f\uff08\u8303\u56f4\uff09\uff1a\u5f62\u800c\u4e0a\u5b66\uff0c\u77e5\u8bc6\u8bba\uff0c\u4f26\u7406\u5b66\uff08\u4ef7\u503c\u8bba\uff09"},"content":{"rendered":"

[IV] \u54f2\u5b66\u7684\u4e3b\u8981\u5206\u652f\uff08\u8303\u56f4\uff09\uff1a\u5f62\u800c\u4e0a\u5b66\uff0c\u77e5\u8bc6\u8bba\uff0c\u4f26\u7406\u5b66\uff08\u4ef7\u503c\u8bba\uff09<\/strong><\/p>\n

SUBDIVISIONS OF PHILOSOPHY<\/strong> (8-13)<\/p>\n

    \n
  1. \u5f62\u800c\u4e0a\u5b66\uff1a\u5bf9\u300e\u5b58\u6709\u300f\u7684\u7814\u7a76METAPHYSICS: THE STUDY OF BEING (VS. NON-BEING)<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

    \u8ba9\u6211\u5bf9\u4e0a\u4e00\u6bb5\u63d0\u5230\u7684\uff0c\u54f2\u5b66\u4e09\u4e2a\u8303\u56f4\uff0c\u518d\u591a\u8bf4\u4e00\u4e9b\u3002<\/p>\n

    Let me say some more about the three subjects mentioned in the previous section.<\/p>\n

    \u300e\u5f62\u800c\u4e0a\u5b66\u300f\u7814\u7a76\u5b87\u5b99\u6700\u666e\u904d\u6027\u7684\u7279\u70b9(most general features)\u3002<\/p>\n

    Metaphysics<\/em> is the study of the most general features of the universe.<\/p>\n

    \u54f2\u5b66\u5bb6\u6709\u65f6\u79f0\u4e4b\u4e3a\u300e\u5bf9\u5b58\u6709\u672c\u8eab\u7684\u7814\u7a76\u300f\uff0c\u6216\u300e\u628a\u5b58\u6709\u89c6\u4e3a\u5b58\u6709\u300f\u6765\u7814\u7a76 (study of being qua being)\u3002<\/p>\n

    Philosophers have sometimes called it \u201cthe study of being itself\u201d or \u201cthe study of being qua being.\u201d<\/p>\n

    \u6362\u8a00\u4e4b\uff0c\u5176\u4ed6\u5b66\u79d1\uff0c\u5305\u62ec\u79d1\u5b66\uff0c\u63a2\u7d22\u4e0d\u540c\u7c7b\u578b\u7684\u5b58\u6709\uff08\u5b58\u5728\u7269\uff09\uff0c\u5404\u79cd\u5b58\u6709\uff0c\u4f46\u662f\u54f2\u5b66\u6240\u95ee\u7684\u662f\uff1a\u4e00\u822c\u6765\u8bf4\uff08\u6309\u7740\u5b83\u7684\u672c\u8d28\u6765\u8bf4\uff09\uff0c\u300e\u5b58\u6709\u300f\u662f\u4ec0\u4e48\u610f\u601d\uff1f\u5f53\u7136\uff0c\u4e0e\u300e\u975e\u5b58\u6709\u300f(non-being) \u6709\u522b\uff0c\u300e\u5b58\u6709\u300f\u662f\u4ec0\u4e48\u610f\u601d\u3002<\/p>\n

    That is to say, other disciplines including the sciences explore different sorts of beings, various types of beings or various kinds of beings<\/em>, but philosophy asks what is meant by being<\/em> in general, in distinction, of course, from non-being<\/em>.<\/p>\n

    \u8fd9\u662f\u4e00\u4e9b\u8270\u5de8\u7684\u95ee\u9898\u3002<\/p>\n

    This is a difficult set of questions.<\/p>\n

    \u9ed1\u683c\u5c14\u63d0\u8bae\u6211\u4eec\u505a\u4e00\u4e2a\u601d\u60f3\u7684\u5b9e\u9a8c\uff1a\u95ed\u8d77\u773c\u775b\uff0c\u60f3\u300e\u5b58\u6709\u300f\uff1b\u7136\u540e\u518d\u95ed\u8d77\u773c\u775b\uff0c\u60f3\u300e\u975e\u5b58\u6709\u300f\u3002<\/p>\n

    Hegel proposed this thought-experiment: close your eyes and think of being<\/em>; then close your eyes and think of non-being<\/em>.<\/p>\n

    \u6ce8\u610f\u5230\u6709\u4f55\u4e0d\u540c\uff1f<\/p>\n

    Notice any difference?<\/p>\n

    \u60c5\u51b5\u4f3c\u4e4e\u662f\uff0c\u5f53\u6211\u4eec\u60f3\u5230\u300e\u975e\u5b58\u6709\u300f\u65f6\uff0c\u6211\u4eec\u5728\u60f3\u300e\u67d0\u4e00\u4e2a\u4e8b\u7269\u300f\uff08something, \u67d0\u4e00\u4e2a\u5b58\u5728\u7269\uff09\uff0c\u56e0\u6b64\u4e8b\u5b9e\u4e0a\u662f\u5728\u60f3\u300e\u5b58\u6709\u300f\u3002<\/p>\n

    It seems that whenever we try to think of non-being, we are thinking of something<\/em>, and therefore of being.<\/p>\n

    \u5f53\u6211\u4eec\u8bd5\u56fe\u4e3a\u300e\u975e\u5b58\u6709\u300f\u4e0b\u5b9a\u4e49\uff0c\u6216\u5217\u51fa\u54ea\u4e9b\u4e0d\u662f\u300e\u5b58\u6709\u300f\u7684\u4e8b\u7269\u65f6\uff0c\u540c\u6837\u7684\u4e8b\u4f1a\u53d1\u751f\u3002<\/p>\n

    Same when we try to define non-being<\/em>, or list things that are not beings.<\/p>\n

    \u6211\u4eec\u5982\u6b64\u4f5c\u7684\u65f6\u5019\uff0c\u5b83\u4eec\u90fd\u662f\u67d0\u4e9b\u4e8b\u7269\uff08things of some kind\uff09\u3002<\/p>\n

    When we do that, they all turn out to be things of some kind.<\/p>\n

    \u4f8b\u5982\uff1a\u72ec\u89d2\u517d\u5e76\u4e0d\u5728\u68ee\u6797\u91cc\u5b58\u5728\uff0c\u4f46\u5374\u5728\u6587\u5b66\u91cc\u5b58\u5728\u3002<\/p>\n

    Unicorns, for example, don\u2019t exist in jungles, but they do exist in literature.<\/p>\n

    \u4f46\u662f\uff0c\u300e\u5b58\u6709\u300f\u82e5\u4e0d\u80fd\u4e0e\u300e\u975e\u5b58\u6709\u300f\u533a\u522b\u51fa\u6765\uff0c\u5b83\uff08\u5b58\u6709\uff09\u600e\u80fd\u662f\u4efb\u4f55\u5b58\u5728\u7269\uff1f (How can it be anything?)<\/p>\n

    If being cannot be distinguished from non-being, however, how can it be anything at all?<\/p>\n

    \u7136\u800c\uff0c\u54f2\u5b66\u5bb6\u4eec\u52c7\u6562\u5730\u9762\u5bf9\u8fd9\u4e9b\u663e\u7136\u4e0d\u53ef\u80fd\u89e3\u51b3\u7684\u95ee\u9898\uff0c\u662f\u503c\u5f97\u94a6\u4f69\u7684\u3002<\/p>\n

    Yet philosophers should be admired for their courage in fielding such apparent impossible questions.<\/p>\n

    [ \u8bd1\u8005\u6309\u3002\u8303\u6cf0\u5c14\u5219\u6ca1\u6709\u8fd9\u4e48\u5ba2\u6c14\uff1b\u4ed6\u4f1a\u8bf4\uff0c\u54f2\u5b66\u5bb6\u4eec\u5982\u6b64\u4f5c\u65f6\uff0c\u4e43\u51fa\u81ea\u8ba4\u4e3a\u81ea\u5df1\u662f\u65e0\u6240\u4e0d\u77e5\u7684\uff0c\u56e0\u4e3a\u4ed6\u4eec\u5728\u63a2\u7d22\u4e00\u4e9b\u7edd\u5bf9\uff0c\u81ea\u5b58\u7684\u4e8b\u7269\u3002]<\/p>\n

    [ Translator: Van Til would critique these questions concerning aseity or something absolute as stemming from mankind\u2019s sense of their own omnipotence. ]<\/p>\n

    \u5f62\u800c\u4e0a\u5b66\u5305\u62ec\u8fd9\u4e2a\u95ee\u9898\uff1a\u300e\u4e3a\u4ec0\u4e48\u6709\u4e9b\u5b58\u6709\u7269\u5b58\u5728\uff0c\u800c\u4e0d\u662f\u4ec0\u4e48\u90fd\u4e0d\u5b58\u5728\uff1f\u300f(Why is there something rather than nothing?) \u6d77\u5fb7\u683c\u5c14\u8ba4\u4e3a\uff0c\u8fd9\u662f\u54f2\u5b66\u754c\u4e2d\u6700\u6838\u5fc3\u7684\u95ee\u9898\u3002<\/p>\n

    Metaphysics includes the question: \u201cwhy is there something rather than nothing?\u201d \u2013 which Heidegger thought was the most central question of all philosophy.<\/p>\n

    \u5f62\u800c\u4e0a\u5b66\u4e5f\u95ee\u6709\u5173\u76ee\u524d\u5b58\u6709\u7684\u914d\u7f6e\u7684\u95ee\u9898\uff1a\u300e\u4e8b\u7269\u4e3a\u4ec0\u4e48\u662f\u5982\u6b64\u7684\uff1f\u300f(Why are things the way they are?) \u548c\u300e\u5b9e\u5728\uff08\u73b0\u5b9e\u4e16\u754c\uff09\u6700\u57fa\u672c\u7684\u7279\u8d28\u662f\u4ec0\u4e48\uff1f\u300f (What are the most basic features of reality?)\u3002<\/p>\n

    It also asks about the present configuration of being: \u201cwhy are things the way they are?\u201d \u00a0And \u201cwhat are the most basic features of reality?\u201d<\/p>\n

    \u54f2\u5b66\u5bb6\u5bf9\u5f62\u800c\u4e0a\u5b66\u7684\u5173\u6ce8\u548c\u4f53\u4f1a\uff08\u91cd\u89c6\uff09\uff0c\u662f\u4e94\u82b1\u516b\u95e8\u7684\u3002<\/p>\n

    Philosophers have varied in their appreciation of and interest in metaphysics.<\/p>\n

    \u81ea\u4ece\u5eb7\u5fb7\u4ee5\u964d\uff0c\u4e0d\u5c11\u4e16\u4fd7\u7684\u54f2\u5b66\u5bb6\u6452\u5f03\u5f62\u800c\u4e0a\u5b66\uff0c\u89c6\u4e4b\u4e3a\u65e0\u6839\u636e\u7684\u731c\u6d4b\u3002<\/p>\n

    Since Kant, many secular philosophers have rejected metaphysics as baseless speculation.<\/p>\n

    \u4e8c\u5341\u4e16\u7eaa\u7684\u8bed\u8a00\u5206\u6790\u5b66\u5bb6\u5f80\u5f80\u4f1a\u8bf4\uff0c\u54f2\u5b66\u552f\u4e00\u7684\u529f\u80fd\u5c31\u662f\u6f84\u6e05\u8bed\u8a00\uff08\u5b57\u8bcd\uff09\uff0c\u5e76\u8bf4\u54f2\u5b66\u5bb6\u6ca1\u6709\u529e\u6cd5\u8d85\u8d8a\u79d1\u5b66\u7684\u65b9\u6cd5\uff0c\u53bb\u77e5\u9053\u5b87\u5b99\u7684\u7ed3\u6784\u3002<\/p>\n

    The language analysts of the twentieth century often said that the only function of philosophy was to clarify language, that philosophers had no means to know the structure of the universe beyond the methods of science.<\/p>\n

    \u4f46\u6709\u4e9b\u8bed\u8a00\u5206\u6790\u5b66\u5bb6\u4e0d\u540c\u610f\u8fd9\u6837\u7684\u5224\u65ad\uff0c\u4ed6\u4eec\u8ba4\u4e3a\uff0c\u5f53\u6211\u4eec\u4ed4\u7ec6\u5206\u6790\u6211\u4eec\u7684\u8bed\u8a00\u65f6\uff0c\u4f1a\u663e\u793a\u51fa\u4e00\u4e9b\u5f62\u800c\u4e0a\u771f\u7406\u3002<\/p>\n

    But some of the analysts differed with this assessment, saying that a careful analysis of our language in fact reveals metaphysical truths.<\/p>\n

    [\u6ce8\u811a\u5e95\u5341\u4e5d\u3002\u4f8b\u5982\u65af\u7279\u52b3\u900a\uff0c\u300a\u4e2a\u4eba\u300b\u4e00\u4e66\u3002]<\/p>\n

    [ Footnote 19.\u00a0 One example is Peter F. Strawson, Individuals: An Essay in Descriptive Metaphysics<\/em> (London: Methuen, 1959). ]<\/p>\n

    \u800c\u8fc7\u7a0b\u54f2\u5b66 (process philosophy) \u81f3\u4eca\u4ecd\u7136\u70ed\u70c8\u8ba8\u8bba\u5f62\u800c\u4e0a\u5b66\u3002<\/p>\n

    And process philosophy carries on a vigorous discussion of metaphysics to this day.<\/p>\n

    \u5f62\u800c\u4e0a\u5b66\u5bb6\u8ba8\u8bba\u7684\u95ee\u9898\uff0c\u548c\u63d0\u4f9b\u7684\u7b54\u6848<\/strong><\/p>\n

    QUESTIONS DISCUSSED BY METAPHYSICIANS, & THEIR ANSWERS<\/strong><\/p>\n

    \u5f62\u800c\u4e0a\u5b66\u5bb6\u6240\u8ba8\u8bba\u7684\u4e2a\u522b\u95ee\u9898\uff0c\u548c\u63d0\u4f9b\u7684\u7b54\u6848\uff0c\u5305\u62ec\u4e0b\u5217\uff1a<\/p>\n

    Specific questions discussed by metaphysicians, and their varying answers, include these:<\/p>\n

    [1.1] \u4e00\u5143\u8bba\uff1b\u591a\u5143\u8bba\uff1b\u4e8c\u5143\u8bba\uff1b\u4e00\u5143\u4e0e\u591a\u5143\u5e76\u5b58<\/strong><\/p>\n

    MONISM, PLURALISM, DUALISM; BOTH UNITY & PLURALITY<\/strong><\/p>\n

    \u5b87\u5b99\u662f\u300e\u4e00\u300f\uff0c\u6291\u6216\u662f\u300e\u4f17\u300f\uff1f<\/p>\n

    Is the universe one or many?<\/p>\n

    \u6015\u95e8\u5c3c\u5fb7\uff0c\u666e\u7f57\u63d0\u8bfa\uff0c\u65af\u5bbe\u8bfa\u8428\uff0c\u548c\u9ed1\u683c\u5c14\u8ba4\u4e3a\uff1a\u5728\u4e16\u754c\u4e00\u5207\u8868\u9762\u7684\u300e\u4f17\u300f\u7684\u80cc\u540e\uff0c\u5b58\u5728\u7740\u4e00\u4e2a\u300e\u4e00\u300f\uff0c\u5b87\u5b99\u5c31\u300e\u662f\u300f\u8fd9\u4e2a\u300e\u4e00\u300f\u3002<\/p>\n

    Parmenides, Plotinus, Spinoza, and Hegel said that beneath all the apparent plurality in the world there is a oneness, and the world is that oneness.<\/p>\n

    \u8fd9\u4e9b\u54f2\u5b66\u5bb6\u88ab\u79f0\u4e3a\u300e\u4e00\u5143\u8bba\u8005\u300f\u3002<\/p>\n

    These are called monists<\/em>.<\/p>\n

    \u5176\u4ed6\u7684\u00b7\u54f2\u5b66\u5bb6\uff0c\u4f8b\u5982\u5fb7\u8c1f\u514b\u91cc\u7279\uff0c\u83b1\u5e03\u5c3c\u5179\uff0c\u548c\u65e9\u671f\u7684\u7ef4\u6839\u65af\u5766\uff0c\u8ba4\u4e3a\u4e16\u754c\u662f\u7531\u7ec6\u5c0f\u7684\u96f6\u4ef6\u7ec4\u6210\u7684\uff0c\u5b83\u4eec\u5f7c\u6b64\u6709\u522b\uff0c\u6bcf\u4e00\u4ef6\u90fd\u4e0d\u80fd\u88ab\u7ea6\u5316\u6210\u66f4\u5c0f\u7684\u4e8b\u7269\u3002<\/p>\n

    Others, such as Democritus, Leibniz, and the early Wittgenstein, thought that the world was made of tiny components, distinct from one another and each irreducible to anything else.<\/p>\n

    \u4ed6\u4eec\u88ab\u79f0\u4e3a\u300e\u591a\u5143\u8bba\u8005\u300f\u3002<\/p>\n

    These are called pluralists<\/em>.<\/p>\n

    \u518d\u6709\u5176\u4ed6\u7684\u54f2\u5b66\u5bb6\uff0c\u79f0\u4e3a\u300e\u4e8c\u5143\u8bba\u8005\u300f\uff0c\u575a\u6301\u5b87\u5b99\u6709\u4e24\u4e2a\u5927\u6982\u540c\u7b49\uff08\u540c\u6837\u5730\u7ec8\u6781\uff09\u7684\u5b9e\u5728\uff08\u5b58\u6709\u7269\uff09\u7ec4\u6210\uff1b\u5178\u578b\u7684\u8bf4\u6cd5\u662f\uff0c\u4e00\u4e2a\u662f\u5584\u7684\uff0c\u4e00\u4e2a\u662f\u6076\u7684\uff0c\u4e24\u8005\u4e89\u53d6\u81f3\u9ad8\u7684\u5730\u4f4d\u3002<\/p>\n

    Still others, known as dualists<\/em>, hold that the world is made up of two more or less equally ultimate realities; typically one is good and the other is evil, and they fight for supremacy.<\/p>\n

    \u4f8b\u5982\uff1a\u6ce2\u65af\u7684\u62dc\u706b\u6559 (Zoroastrianism) \u548c\u6469\u5c3c\u6559 (Manichaeanism) \u7684\u4e00\u4e9b\u6d3e\u522b\uff0c\u5b83\u4eec\u90fd\u5f71\u54cd\u65e9\u671f\u57fa\u7763\u6559\u3002<\/p>\n

    Examples of this are found in the Zoroastrian religion and the Manichaean sects that sought influence among early Christians.<\/p>\n

    [ \u8bd1\u8005\u6309\u3002\u4e0d\u8bba\u662f\u534e\u4eba\uff0c\u97e9\u56fd\u4eba\u6216\u7f8e\u56fd\u4eba\uff0c\u6709\u4e0d\u5c11\u4fdd\u5b88\u6d3e\u7684\u4f20\u9053\u4eba\u548c\u6559\u6d3e\u5ba3\u4f20\uff1a\u5b87\u5b99\u5386\u53f2\u7684\u610f\u4e49\uff0c\u57fa\u672c\u662f\u4e0a\u5e1d\u4e0e\u9b54\u9b3c\u7684\u6597\u4e89\uff1b\u4e0a\u5e1d\u6574\u4e2a\u6551\u8d4e\u8ba1\u5212\u5c31\u662f\u548c\u9b54\u9b3c\u4e89\u53d6\u4eba\u7684\u7075\u9b42\u3002\u8fd9\u79cd\u8bf4\u6cd5\u4e43\u663e\u793a\u62dc\u706b\u6559\u548c\u6469\u5c3c\u6559\u7684\u5f71\u54cd\u3002]<\/p>\n

    \u8fd8\u6709\u5176\u4ed6\u4e2d\u95f4\u7acb\u573a\u3002<\/p>\n

    There are also other mediating positions.<\/p>\n

    \u4f8b\u5982\u6709\u4e9b\u54f2\u5b66\u5bb6\uff0c\u4f8b\u5982\u4e9a\u91cc\u65af\u591a\u7279\u548c\u6d1b\u514b\uff0c\u6301\u4e00\u79cd\u5e38\u8bc6\u6027\u7684\u89c2\u70b9\uff1a\u5b87\u5b99\u6709\u5404\u79cd\u7684\u4e8b\u7269\uff0c\u8fd9\u4e9b\u4e8b\u7269\u53ef\u4ee5\u6839\u636e\u4e00\u4e9b\u666e\u904d\u6027\u8303\u7574\uff08\u6982\u5ff5\uff09\u6765\u7406\u89e3\uff0c\u56e0\u6b64\uff1a\u5b87\u5b99\u6709\u300e\u4e00\u300f\u4e5f\u6709\u300e\u4f17\u300f\u3002<\/p>\n

    Some philosophers, such as Aristotle and Locke, have held the common-sense view that there are many things in the world, but that these things can be understood in general categories, so that the universe has both unity and plurality.<\/p>\n

    [1.2] \u552f\u5fc3\u6216\u552f\u7269\uff1f\u7269\u8d28\uff08\u552f\u7269\uff09\u4e3b\u4e49\uff1a<\/strong><\/p>\n

    \u5b87\u5b99\u4e07\u7269\u90fd\u662f\u6c34\uff1f\u7a7a\u6c14\uff1f\u706b\uff1f\u6570\u5b57\uff1f\u539f\u5b50\uff1f\u7269\u8d28\uff1f<\/strong><\/p>\n

    \u6216\uff1a\u5f62\u5f0f\u548c\u7269\u8d28\u7684\u7ed3\u5408\uff1f<\/strong><\/p>\n

    IDEALISM OR MATERIALISM?<\/strong><\/p>\n

    MATERIALISM: ALL IS WATER, AIR, FIRE, NUMBER, ATOMS, MATTER? <\/strong><\/p>\n

    OR FORM & MATTER COMBINED? <\/strong><\/p>\n

    \u5b87\u5b99\u6700\u57fa\u672c\u7531\u4ec0\u4e48\u7ec4\u6210\uff1f<\/p>\n

    What is the basic composition of the universe?<\/p>\n

    \u6cf0\u96f7\u5179\u8bf4\u300e\u6c34\u300f\uff1b<\/p>\n

    \u963f\u90a3\u897f\u7f8e\u5e0c\u8bf4\u300e\u7a7a\u6c14\u300f\uff1b<\/p>\n

    \u963f\u7eb3\u514b\u8428\u683c\u62c9\u65af\u8bf4\u300e\u67d0\u67d0\u4e0d\u786e\u5b9a\u4e8b\u7269\u300f\uff1b<\/p>\n

    \u8d6b\u62c9\u514b\u5229\u7279\u8bf4\u662f\u300e\u706b\u300f\uff0c<\/p>\n

    \u6bd5\u8fbe\u54e5\u62c9\u65af\u8bf4\u662f\u300e\u6570\u5b57\u300f\u3002<\/p>\n

    Thales said water, Anaximenes air, Anaxagoras something \u201cindefinite,\u201d Heraclitus fire, Pythagoras number.<\/p>\n

    \u5fb7\u8c1f\u514b\u62c9\u7279\u8ba4\u4e3a\u5b87\u5b99\u4e43\u662f\u7531\u7ec6\u5c0f\u7684\uff0c\u4e0d\u80fd\u706d\u7edd\u7684\u7269\u8d28\u300e\u539f\u5b50\u300f\u6240\u7ec4\u6210\u3002<\/p>\n

    Democritus thought the world was composed of tiny, indestructible material bits called atoms<\/em>.<\/p>\n

    \u4ed6\u4eec\uff0c\u548c\u540e\u6765\u7684\u9a6c\u514b\u601d\uff0c\u88ab\u79f0\u4e3a\u300e\u552f\u7269\u8bba\u8005\u300f\uff0c\u56e0\u4e3a\u4ed6\u4eec\u76f8\u4fe1\uff0c\u5b87\u5b99\u7684\u4e00\u5207\u4e8b\u7269\uff0c\u672c\u8d28\u4e0a\u90fd\u662f\u7269\u8d28\u7684\u3002
    \nThese, and later thinkers such as Karl Marx, are called materialists<\/em>, because they believed that everything in the world is material in nature.<\/p>\n

    \u67cf\u62c9\u56fe\u548c\u4e9a\u91cc\u65af\u591a\u7279\u8ba4\u4e3a\uff0c\u5b87\u5b99\u662f\u7531\u300e\u7269\u8d28\u300f\u548c\u300e\u5f62\u5f0f\u300f\u7ed3\u5408\u3002<\/p>\n

    Plato and Aristotle said that the world is a combination of matter and form.<\/p>\n

    \u552f\u5fc3\u4e3b\u4e49\uff1a\u5b87\u5b99\u4e07\u7269\u90fd\u662f\u7cbe\u795e\uff08\u601d\u60f3\uff09\uff1b\u6cdb\u795e\u8bba\uff1a\u5b87\u5b99\u662f\u4e0a\u5e1d<\/strong><\/p>\n

    IDEALISM: WORLD IS MIND; PANTHEISM: WORLD IS GOD<\/strong><\/p>\n

    \u4f2f\u514b\u83b1\uff0c\u83b1\u5e03\u5c3c\u5179\uff0c\u548c\u9ed1\u683c\u5c14\u8ba4\u4e3a\uff1a\u5b87\u5b99\u662f\u7cbe\u795e (mind)\uff0c\u800c\u7269\u8d28\u662f\u5e7b\u89c9\u3002<\/p>\n

    Berkeley, Leibniz, and Hegel said that the world is mind and that matter is an illusion.<\/p>\n

    \u8fd9\u4e2a\u89c2\u70b9\u88ab\u79f0\u4e3a\u300e\u552f\u5fc3\u4e3b\u4e49\u300f\u3002<\/p>\n

    This view is called idealism<\/em>.<\/p>\n

    \u666e\u7f57\u63d0\u8bfa\uff0c\u65af\u5bbe\u8bfa\u8428\uff0c\u548c\u9ed1\u683c\u5c14\u8ba4\u4e3a\u5b87\u5b99\u6709\u795e\u6027\uff08\u662f\u795e\u5723\u7684\uff09\uff0c\u8fd9\u4e2a\u89c2\u70b9\u79f0\u4e3a\u300e\u6cdb\u795e\u8bba\u300f\u3002<\/p>\n

    Plotinus, Spinoza, and Hegel said that the world is divine, a view called pantheism<\/em>.<\/p>\n

    [1.3] \u5171\u76f8\u771f\u6b63\u5b58\u5728\uff1f\u6291\u6216\uff1a\u53ea\u6709\u6b8a\u76f8\uff1f <\/strong><\/p>\n

    UNIVERSALS = REAL?\u00a0 ONLY PARTICULARS? \u00a0<\/strong><\/p>\n

    \u5171\u76f8\u771f\u6b63\u5b58\u5728\u7684\u5417\uff1f\u6291\u6216\uff0c\u53ea\u6709\u6b8a\u76f8\u5b58\u5728\uff1f<\/p>\n

    Are universals real, or only particulars?<\/p>\n

    \u5171\u76f8 UNIVERSALS<\/strong><\/p>\n

    \u5728\u6211\u4eec\u8bed\u8a00\uff08\u7528\u8bcd\uff09\u4e2d\uff0c\u6709\u4e9b\u5b57\u8bcd\u6307\u4e00\u822c\u6027\uff0c\u6216\u62bd\u8c61\u7684\u5b9e\u5728\uff0c\u4f8b\u5982\uff1a\u7ea2\u989c\u8272\uff0c\u4e09\u89d2\u5f62\uff0c\u4eba\u6027\uff0c\u7f8e\u5fb7\u3002\u8fd9\u79f0\u4e3a\u300e\u5171\u76f8\u300f\u3002<\/p>\n

    In our language, some terms refer to general or abstract realities: redness, triangularity, manhood, virtue<\/em>.\u00a0 \u00a0These are called universals<\/em>.<\/p>\n

    \u6b8a\u76f8PARTICULARS<\/strong><\/p>\n

    \u5171\u76f8\u4e0e\u6b8a\u76f8\u662f\u5bf9\u7acb\u7684\uff1b\u540e\u8005\u6307\u4e2a\u522b\u7684\u4e8b\u7269\uff0c\u4f8b\u5982\uff1a\u8fd9\u4e2a\u4eba\uff0c\u8fd9\u68f5\u6811\uff0c\u8fd9\u5757\u997c\u5e72\uff0c\u8fd9\u718a\u3002<\/p>\n

    They are contrasted with particulars<\/em>, which refer to individual things: this man, this tree, this cookie, this bear<\/em>.<\/p>\n

    \u552f\u540d\u8bba\u8005\uff1a\u53ea\u6709\u6b8a\u76f8\u5b58\u5728NOMINALISTS: ONLY PARTICULARS EXIST<\/strong><\/p>\n

    \u6709\u4e9b\u54f2\u5b66\u5bb6\uff08\u4f8b\u5982\uff1a\u5965\u5361\u59c6\u7684\u5a01\u5ec9\uff09\u8ba4\u4e3a\uff0c\u53ea\u6709\u6b8a\u76f8\u5b58\u5728\u3002<\/p>\n

    Some philosophers (as William of Occam) have said that only particulars exist.<\/p>\n

    \u4ed6\u4eec\u79f0\u4e3a\u300e\u552f\u540d\u8bba\u8005\u300f\uff0c\u56e0\u4e3a\u4ed6\u4eec\u8bf4\uff0c\u5171\u76f8\u53ea\u4e0d\u8fc7\u662f\u540d\u5b57\uff0c\u662f\u6211\u4eec\u7528\u6765\u300e\u4e00\u4e0b\u5b50\u540c\u65f6\u6307\u5f88\u591a\u6b8a\u76f8\u300f\u7684\u5b57\u800c\u5df2\u3002<\/p>\n

    These are called nominalists<\/em>, for they say that universals are only names, words by which we refer to a lot of particulars at once.<\/p>\n

    \u552f\u5b9e\u8bba\u8005\uff1a\u5171\u76f8\u4e2a\u522b\u5730\u5b58\u5728REALISTS: UNIVERSALS EXIST DISTINCTLY<\/strong><\/p>\n

    \u5176\u4ed6\u7684\u54f2\u5b66\u5bb6\uff08\u4f8b\u5982\uff1a\u67cf\u62c9\u56fe\uff0c\u4e9a\u91cc\u65af\u591a\u7279\uff09\u8ba4\u4e3a\uff0c\u5171\u76f8\u6709\u81ea\u5df1\u72ec\u7279\u7684\u5b58\u5728\uff08\u82e5\u4e0d\u662f\u5982\u6b64\uff0c\u8fd9\u4e9b\u5171\u76f8\u7684\u8bcd\u6c47\u662f\u4ec0\u4e48\u610f\u601d\uff1f\uff09\u3002<\/p>\n

    Others (Plato, Aristotle), say that universals have a distinct existence (if they don\u2019t, what do such universal terms mean?).<\/p>\n

    \u4ed6\u4eec\u88ab\u79f0\u4e3a\u300e\u552f\u5b9e\u8bba\u8005\u300f\u3002<\/p>\n

    These are called realists<\/em>.<\/p>\n

    \u4ed6\u4eec\u4e2d\u95f4\u6709\u4eba\uff08\u4f8b\u5982\uff1a\u67cf\u62c9\u56fe\uff09\u4f1a\u8d28\u7591\uff0c\u7269\u8d28\u7684\u4e8b\u7269\u7a76\u7adf\u662f\u5426\u771f\u6b63\u5b58\u5728\uff0c\u56e0\u6b64\u4ed6\u4eec\u76f8\u4fe1\uff1a\u552f\u6709\u5171\u76f8\u662f\u771f\u5b9e\u7684(only universals are real)\u3002<\/p>\n

    Some of these, such as Plato, questioned whether material things have any reality at all, so they believed that only universals are real.<\/p>\n

    \u5171\u76f8\u5728\u54ea\u91cc\u5b58\u5728\uff1f\u53e6\u4e00\u4e2a\u4e16\u754c\u91cc\uff1f\u8fd9\u4e2a\u4e16\u754c\u91cc\uff1f\u5728\u4e0a\u5e1d\u7684\u601d\u60f3\u91cc\uff1f<\/strong><\/p>\n

    WHERE DO UNIVERSALS EXIST? ANOTHER WORLD?\u00a0 IN WORLD?\u00a0 IN GOD\u2019S MIND?<\/strong><\/p>\n

    \u5728\u90a3\u4e9b\u8ba4\u4e3a\u5171\u76f8\u771f\u5b9e\u5b58\u5728\u7684\u54f2\u5b66\u5bb6\u4e2d\u95f4\uff0c\u4ed6\u4eec\u5bf9\uff1a\u300e\u5171\u76f8\u5728\u54ea\u91cc<\/em>\u5b58\u5728\uff1f\u300f\u6301\u4e0d\u540c\u7684\u770b\u6cd5\u3002<\/p>\n

    \u5171\u76f8\u5728\u53e6\u4e00\u4e2a\u4e16\u754c\u4e2d\u5b58\u5728\uff08\u67cf\u62c9\u56fe\uff09\uff1f<\/p>\n

    \u5171\u76f8\u4e43\u662f\u8fd9\u4e2a\u4e16\u754c\u7684\u4e00\u4e2a\u7ec4\u6210\u90e8\u5206\uff08component, \u4e9a\u91cc\u65af\u591a\u7279\uff09\uff1f<\/p>\n

    \u5b58\u5728\u5728\u4e0a\u5e1d\u7684\u601d\u60f3\u91cc\uff08\u5965\u53e4\u65af\u4e01\uff09\uff1f<\/p>\n

    Among those who think universals exist, there is some disagreement as to where<\/em> they exist: In another world (Plato)?\u00a0 As a component of things in this world (Aristotle)?\u00a0 In God\u2019s mind (Augustine)?<\/p>\n

    [1.4] \u5b87\u5b99\u4e0d\u65ad\u53d8\u52a8\uff1f\u4e0d\u53d8\uff1f<\/strong><\/p>\n

    \u6709\u4e9b\u4e8b\u7269\u4e0d\u53d8\uff08\u5f62\u5f0f\uff09\uff1b\u6709\u4e9b\u4e8b\u7269\u53d8\u52a8\uff08\u7269\u8d28\uff09\uff1f<\/strong><\/p>\n

    UNIVERSE = CHANGING?\u00a0 STATIC?\u00a0 <\/strong><\/p>\n

    SOME THINGS (FORM) = UNCHANGING; SOME THINGS (MATTER) = CHANGING?<\/strong><\/p>\n

    \u5b87\u5b99\u4e2d\u7684\u4e8b\u7269\u5728\u53d8\u52a8\u4e2d\uff1f\u6291\u6216\uff1a\u4ed6\u4eec\u662f\u4e0d\u52a8\u7684\uff1f<\/p>\n

    Do things in the universe change, or are they static?<\/p>\n

    \u6015\u95e8\u5c3c\u5fb7\u8ba4\u4e3a\uff1a\u5b87\u5b99\u662f\u5b8c\u5168\u4e0d\u53d8\u7684\u3002<\/p>\n

    Parmenides said that the universe was entirely unchanging.<\/p>\n

    \u8d6b\u62c9\u514b\u5229\u7279\u5219\u6301\u76f8\u53cd\u610f\u89c1\uff0c\u8ba4\u4e3a\uff1a\u4e07\u7269\u4e0d\u65ad\u5728\u53d8\u52a8\u4e2d(constantly in flux)\u3002<\/p>\n

    Heraclitus said the opposite, that everything was constantly changing, in flux.<\/p>\n

    \u67cf\u62c9\u56fe\u548c\u4e9a\u91cc\u65af\u591a\u7279\u8ba4\u4e3a\uff1a\u6709\u4e9b\u4e8b\u7269\u4e0d\u53d8\uff08\u5f62\u5f0f\uff09\uff0c\u5176\u4ed6\u4e8b\u7269\u5219\u53d8\u52a8\uff08\u7269\u8d28\uff09\u3002<\/p>\n

    Plato and Aristotle taught that some things were unchanging (forms), others constantly changing (matter).<\/p>\n

    [1.5] \u81ea\u7136\u754c\u548c\u5386\u53f2\uff1a\u6709\u76ee\u7684\uff1f\u6291\u6216\u6ca1\u6709\u76ee\u7684\uff1f<\/strong><\/p>\n

    NATURE & HISTORY: IS THERE A GOAL?\u00a0 NO GOAL? <\/strong><\/p>\n

    \u81ea\u7136\u754c\u548c\u5386\u53f2\u7684\u4e8b\u4ef6\uff0c\u662f\u5426\u671d\u7740\u4e00\u4e2a\u76ee\u6807\u524d\u8fdb\uff08\u76ee\u7684\u8bba\uff09\uff1f\u6291\u6216\u4ed6\u4eec\u5c31\u662f\u8fd9\u6837\u53d1\u751f\uff0c\u6ca1\u6709\u7406\u7531\uff0c\u6ca1\u6709\u65b9\u5411\uff1f<\/p>\n

    Do the events of nature and history work toward goals (teleology), or do they simply occur, without any rationale or direction?<\/p>\n

    \u67cf\u62c9\u56fe\uff0c\u7279\u522b\u662f\u4e9a\u91cc\u65af\u591a\u7279\u8ba4\u4e3a\uff1a\u81ea\u7136\u754c\u7684\u8fdb\u7a0b\u662f\u300e\u6709\u76ee\u7684\u300f\u7684(teleological)\uff0c\u6bcf\u4e00\u4e2a\u52a8\u4f5c (motion) \u6216\u8fc7\u7a0b\u90fd\u6709\u5176\u76ee\u7684\u3002<\/p>\n

    Plato and especially Aristotle taught that the course of nature was teleological, that every motion or process had a purpose.<\/p>\n

    \u7f57\u7d20\u548c\u8428\u7279\u5219\u5426\u8ba4\u6709\u4efb\u4f55\u76ee\u7684\u5b58\u5728\uff0c\u9664\u4e86\uff1a\u4eba\u7c7b\u81ea\u5df1\u5236\u9020\u4e86\u8fd9\u4e9b\u76ee\u7684\u3002<\/p>\n

    Bertrand Russell and Jean-Paul Sartre denied that any purposes exist, except those that human beings themselves create.<\/p>\n

    [1.6] \u56e0\u679c\u5982\u4f55\u5173\u8054\uff1f\u51b3\u5b9a\u4e3b\u4e49\uff0c\u968f\u610f\u81ea\u7531\u610f\u5fd7<\/strong><\/p>\n

    HOW DO CAUSE & EFFECT RELATE?\u00a0 DETERMINISM VS. LIBERTARIAN FREEDOM<\/strong><\/p>\n

    \u300e\u56e0\u300f\u548c\u300e\u679c\u300f\u4e4b\u95f4\u6709\u4f55\u5173\u8054\uff1f<\/p>\n

    What is the connection between cause and effect?<\/p>\n

    \u6709\u4e9b\u54f2\u5b66\u5bb6\uff0c\u4f8b\u5982\u5fb7\u8c1f\u514b\u91cc\u7279\uff0c\u970d\u5e03\u65af\uff0c\u548c\u65af\u5bbe\u8bfa\u8428\uff0c\u662f\u300e\u51b3\u5b9a\u4e3b\u4e49\u8005\u300f (determinists)\uff0c\u610f\u5373\uff1a\u4ed6\u4eec\u8ba4\u4e3a\u6bcf\u4e00\u4e2a\u4e8b\u4ef6\u90fd\u5fc5\u7136\u56e0\u4e3a\u53e6\u4e00\u4e2a\u4e8b\u4ef6\u800c\u53d1\u751f\uff0c\u56e0\u6b64\u5b58\u5728\u7740\u4e00\u4e2a\u65e0\u60c5\uff08\u5fc5\u7136\uff09\u7684\u6210\u56e0\u94fe\u3002<\/p>\n

    Some, like Democritus, Hobbes and Spinoza, have been determinists<\/em>: that is, they taught that every event is necessitated by another event, forming an inexorable causal chain.<\/p>\n

    \u4f0a\u6bd4\u9e20\u9c81\uff0c\u65e9\u671f\u6559\u4f1a\u6559\u7236\uff0c\u7b1b\u5361\u5c14\uff0c\u4e9a\u7c73\u5ff5\uff0c\u6000\u7279\u9ed1\u5fb7\uff0c\u548c\u5176\u4ed6\u54f2\u5b66\u5bb6\u5219\u6301\u4e00\u79cd\u300e\u968f\u610f\u81ea\u7531\u89c2\u300f\uff1a\u4eba\u7c7b\u6709\u80fd\u529b\u4f5c\u4e00\u4e9b\u884c\u52a8\uff0c\u662f\u6ca1\u6709\u5176\u4ed6\u4e8b\u4ef6\u4f5c\u6210\u56e0\u7684\u3002<\/p>\n

    Epicurus, the Church Fathers, Descartes, Arminius, Whitehead, and others have held to a view of libertarian freedom<\/em> in which human beings are capable of performing acts that are not caused by other events.<\/p>\n

    \u4f11\u8c1f\u8ba4\u4e3a\uff1a\u56e0\u679c\u4e4b\u95f4\uff0c\u5e76\u4e0d\u5b58\u5728\u7740\u5fc5\u7136\u5173\u8054 (necessary connection)\u3002<\/p>\n

    David Hume denied that there was any necessary connection<\/em> between cause and effect.<\/p>\n

    \u5eb7\u5fb7\u8ba4\u4e3a\u8fd9\u4e2a\u5173\u8054\u662f\u5b58\u5728\u7684\uff0c\u4f46\u5b83\u662f\u7531\u4eba\u7684\u7406\u6027\u65bd\u52a0\u7684\uff0c\u5e76\u4e0d\u5b58\u5728\u5728\u81ea\u7136\u754c\u3002<\/p>\n

    Immanuel Kant said that there was such a connection, but that the connection is imposed by the human mind, not to be found in nature.<\/p>\n

    [1.7] \u4eba\u6709\u7075\u9b42\u5417\uff1fDo human beings have souls?<\/strong><\/p>\n

    \u4eba\u7c7b\u6709\u7075\u9b42\u5417\uff1f\u9664\u4e86\u8eab\u4f53\u4ee5\u5916\uff0c\u6709\u7406\u667a\/\u7cbe\u795e (mind) \u5417\uff1f<\/p>\n

    Do human beings have souls?\u00a0 Minds distinct from their bodies?<\/p>\n

    \u67cf\u62c9\u56fe\u8bf4\u300e\u6709\u300f\uff0c\u540e\u6765\u5927\u90e8\u5206\u4f20\u7edf\u57fa\u7763\u5f92\u4e5f\u540c\u610f\uff0c\u4f8b\u5982\uff1a\u5965\u53e4\u65af\u4e01\u548c\u963f\u594e\u90a3\u3002<\/p>\n

    Plato said yes, followed by most traditional Christians, such as Augustine and Aquinas.<\/p>\n

    \u7b1b\u5361\u5c14\u4e5f\u540c\u610f\u3002
    \nDescartes agreed.<\/p>\n

    \u4f46\u662f\u4e9a\u91cc\u65af\u591a\u7279\u8ba4\u4e3a\u7075\u9b42\u4e43\u662f\u300e\u8eab\u4f53\u7684\u5f62\u5f0f\u300f\u3002<\/p>\n

    Aristotle, however, said that the soul is \u201cthe form of the body.\u201d<\/p>\n

    \u6cf0\u96f7\u5179\uff0c\u4f0a\u6bd4\u9e20\u9c81\uff0c\u970d\u5e03\u65af\uff0c\u9a6c\u514b\u601d\uff0c\u548c\u7f57\u7d20\u90fd\u662f\u552f\u7269\u8bba\u8005\uff0c\u76f8\u4fe1\u6240\u6709\u4e8b\u4ef6\u90fd\u53ef\u4ee5\u7528\u7269\u8d28\u548c\u52a8\u6001(matter and motion) \u89e3\u91ca\u3002<\/p>\n

    Thales, Epicurus, Thomas Hobbes, Karl Marx, and Bertrand Russell were materialists, believing that all events can be explained in terms of matter and motion.<\/p>\n

    \u4ece\u552f\u7269\u7684\u89c2\u70b9\u6765\u770b\uff0c\u975e\u7269\u8d28\u7684\u7075\u9b42\u5e76\u4e0d\u5b58\u5728\u3002<\/p>\n

    On this view, there is no immaterial soul.<\/p>\n

    \u82e5\u6709\u4ec0\u4e48\u88ab\u79f0\u4e3a\u7075\u9b42\u4e4b\u7269\uff0c\u53ef\u80fd\u662f\u7269\u8d28\u7684\uff08\u65af\u591a\u4e9a\u6d3e\uff09\uff0c\u6216\u662f\u8eab\u4f53\u7684\u4e00\u4e2a\u5c42\u9762\u3002<\/p>\n

    If there is something that we can call soul<\/em>, it is either material (the Stoic view), or an aspect of the body.<\/p>\n

    [1.8] \u4eba\u7c7b\u7684\u7406\u6027\u5982\u4f55\u8fd0\u4f5c\uff1f\u5e94\u8be5\u5982\u4f55\u8fd0\u4f5c\uff1f <\/strong><\/p>\n

    How does the human mind operate? \u00a0How should it?<\/strong><\/p>\n

    \u54f2\u5b66\u5bb6\u4eec\u4e5f\u5728\u4eba\u7c7b\u601d\u60f3\u548c\u7ecf\u9a8c\u7684\u4e0d\u540c\u8303\u56f4\u4f5c\u4e0d\u540c\u7684\u533a\u522b\uff1a\u7406\u667a\uff0c\u610f\u5fd7\uff0c\u611f\u60c5\uff0c\u60f3\u8c61\uff0c\u8bb0\u5fc6\uff0c\u76f4\u89c9\uff0c\u5bdf\u89c9\uff0c\u7406\u5ff5\uff0c\u5370\u8c61\uff0c\u7b49\u7b49\u3002<\/p>\n

    Philosophers have made various distinctions within the sphere of human thought and experience: intellect, will, emotions, imagination, memory, intuition, perception, ideas, impressions, and so on.<\/p>\n

    \u7406\u667a\u4e3b\u4e49\u8005INTELLECT \u2013 INTELLECTUALISTS<\/strong><\/p>\n

    \u7406\u667a\u4e3b\u4e49\u8005\uff0c\u4f8b\u5982\u67cf\u62c9\u56fe\uff0c\u963f\u594e\u90a3\uff0c\u7b1b\u5361\u5c14\uff0c\u9ed1\u683c\u5c14\uff0c\u514b\u62c9\u514b\uff0c\u76f8\u4fe1\uff1a\u5f53\u4eba\u7684\u7406\u667a\u6b63\u5e38\u8fd0\u4f5c\u65f6\uff0c\u4eba\u7cbe\u795e\u91cc\u6240\u6709\u5c42\u9762\u90fd\u670d\u4ece\u7406\u667a\u7684\u6307\u6325\u3002<\/p>\n

    Intelletualists<\/em> (such as Plato, Aquinas, Descartes, Hegel, Gordon H. Clark) believe that when the mind is working properly, all aspects of the mind are subject to the intellect.<\/p>\n

    \u610f\u5fd7\u4e3b\u4e49\u8005WILL \u2013 VOLUNTARISTS<\/strong><\/p>\n

    \u610f\u5fd7\u4e3b\u4e49\u8005\uff0c\u4f8b\u5982\uff1a\u53f8\u53ef\u8131\uff0c\u5965\u5361\u59c6\uff0c\u53d4\u672c\u534e\uff0c\u5c3c\u91c7\u7b49\u8ba4\u4e3a\uff1a\u5f53\u4eba\u76f8\u4fe1\u67d0\u67d0\u4e8b\u7269\u65f6\uff0c\u5f80\u5f80\u9700\u8981\u4e00\u4e2a\u9009\u62e9\uff0c\u4e00\u4e2a\u610f\u5fd7\u7684\u884c\u52a8\u3002<\/p>\n

    Voluntarists<\/em> (Duns Scotus, William of Occam, Arthur Schopenhauer, Friedrich Nietzsche) note that believing something often if not always requires a choice, a decision of will.<\/p>\n

    \u5bf9\u4ed6\u4eec\u6765\u8bf4\uff0c\u610f\u5fd7\u662f\u6700\u57fa\u672c\u7684\uff0c\u4e0d\u662f\u7406\u667a\u3002<\/p>\n

    For them, will, not intellect, is fundamental.<\/p>\n

    \u4e3b\u89c2\u4e3b\u4e49\u8005FEELINGS \u2013 SUBJECTIVISTS<\/strong><\/p>\n

    \u4e3b\u89c2\u4e3b\u4e49\u8005\uff0c\u4f8b\u5982\uff1a\u5e0c\u814a\u7684\u8be1\u8fa9\u6d3e\uff0c\u4f11\u8c1f\uff0c\u8c22\u6797\uff0c\u548c\u58eb\u83b1\u9a6c\u8d6b\uff0c\u8ba4\u4e3a\u7406\u667a\u8ddf\u4ece\u611f\u89c9\uff0c\u6216\u5e94\u8be5\u5982\u6b64\u3002<\/p>\n

    Subjectivists<\/em> (such as the Sophists, Hume, Schelling, and Schleiermacher) believe that the mind does and<\/p>\n

    should follow its feelings.<\/p>\n

    \u5176\u4ed6\u5fae\u5999\u7684\u7406\u8bba OTHER SOPHISTICATED THEORIES \u2013 INTERACTION BET. FACULTIES<\/strong><\/p>\n

    \u8fd8\u6709\u5176\u4ed6\u54f2\u5b66\u5bb6\uff0c\u53d1\u5c55\u5fae\u5999\u7684\u7406\u8bba\uff0c\u5904\u7406\u8fd9\u4e9b\u300e\u529f\u80fd\u300f\uff08\u7406\u667a\uff0c\u611f\u60c5\uff0c\u610f\u5fd7\u7b49\uff09\u4e4b\u95f4\u7684\u4e92\u52a8\u3002<\/p>\n

    Others develop more sophisticated theories of the interaction of these \u201cfaculties.\u201d<\/p>\n

    [9] \u6709\u795e\u5b58\u5728\u5417\uff1fIs there a god?<\/strong><\/p>\n

    \u6b63\u5982\u6211\u4e0a\u6587\u8bf4\u8fc7\uff0c\u4ece\u6700\u91cd\u8981\u7684\u610f\u4e49\u6765\u770b\uff0c\u4e16\u754c\u4e0a\u6ca1\u6709\u65e0\u795e\u8bba\u8005\u3002<\/p>\n

    As I said earlier, in the most important sense there are no atheists.<\/p>\n

    \u600e\u6837\u7684\u795e\u5b58\u5728\uff1fWHAT KIND OF GOD IS THERE?<\/strong><\/p>\n

    \u4f46\u662f\u7a76\u7adf\u600e\u6837\u7684\u795e\u5b58\u5728\uff1f\u54f2\u5b66\u5bb6\u610f\u89c1\u5206\u6b67\u3002<\/p>\n

    But there are great differences among philosophers as to what kind of god<\/em> there is.<\/p>\n

    \u5b87\u5b99\u5c31\u662f\u795e\uff1a\u6cdb\u795e\u8bba<\/strong><\/p>\n

    WORLD = GOD \u2013 PANTHEISM<\/strong><\/p>\n

    \u6709\u4e9b\u54f2\u5b66\u5bb6\uff0c\u4f8b\u5982\u8272\u8bfa\u82ac\uff0c\u65af\u5bbe\u8bfa\u8428\uff0c\u548c\u9ed1\u683c\u5c14\uff0c\u8ba4\u4e3a\u5b87\u5b99\u5c31\u662f\u795e\u3002\uff08\u8fd9\u4e2a\u89c2\u5ff5\u79f0\u4e3a\u6cdb\u795e\u8bba\u3002\uff09<\/p>\n

    Some, such as Xenophanes, Spinoza, and Hegel, believed that the world was god.\u00a0 (That view is called pantheism<\/em>.)<\/p>\n

    \u4e07\u7269\u90fd\u5728\u795e\u91cc\uff1a\u8d85\u6cdb\u795e\u8bba (panentheism) <\/strong><\/p>\n

    EVERYTHING IS IN GOD \u2013 PANENTHEISM<\/strong><\/p>\n

    Whitehead\uff0c Hartshorne \u8ba4\u4e3a\uff1a\u5b87\u5b99\u672c\u8eab\u662f\u795e\u5723\uff08\u5177\u6709\u795e\u6027\uff09\u7684\uff0c\u662f\u4e0a\u5e1d\u7684\u4e00\u4e2a\u5c42\u9762\uff1b\u4f46\u662f\u4e0a\u5e1d\u53c8\uff08\u4e0d\u6653\u5f97\u5982\u4f55\uff09\u6bd4\u5b87\u5b99\u66f4\u5927\u3002\u8fd9\u89c2\u70b9\u6210\u4e3a\u8d85\u6cdb\u795e\u8bba(panentheism)\u3002<\/p>\n

    Whitehead and Hartshorne believed that the world is divine, an aspect of god, but that god was somewhat more than the world.\u00a0 (That view is called panentheism<\/em>, \u201ceverything is in<\/em> god.\u201d)<\/p>\n

    \u81ea\u7136\u795e\u8bbaDEISTS<\/strong><\/p>\n

    \u6709\u4e9b\u5341\u4e03\uff0c\u5341\u516b\u4e16\u7eaa\u7684\u601d\u60f3\u5bb6\u58f0\u79f0\uff1a\u4e0a\u5e1d\u521b\u9020\u4e86\u4e16\u754c\uff0c\u4efb\u51ed\u5b83\u6839\u636e\u300e\u81ea\u7136\u5b9a\u5f8b\u300f\u8fd0\u4f5c\uff0c\u4e0a\u5e1d\u4ece\u90a3\u65f6\u518d\u4e0d\u4ecb\u5165\u4e16\u754c\u3002\u4ed6\u4eec\u79f0\u4e3a\u300e\u81ea\u7136\u795e\u8bba\u8005\u300f\u3002<\/p>\n

    Some seventeenth- and eighteenth-century thinkers held that God created the world to run according to \u201cnatural laws\u201d and never again intervened. They are called deists<\/em>.<\/p>\n

    \u67cf\u62c9\u56fe\u7684\u300e\u795e\u300fPLATO\u2019S \u201cGOD\u201d<\/strong><\/p>\n

    \u67cf\u62c9\u56fe\u4f7f\u7528\u795e\u5b66\u540d\u8bcd\u5f62\u5bb9\u4ed6\u7684\u300e\u5584\u300f\u7684\u6982\u5ff5\uff0c\u4e5f\u7528\u795e\u5b66\u8bcd\u6c47\u6307\u300e\u9020\u7269\u5de5\u5320\u300f(the Demiurge)\uff0c\u540e\u8005\u6839\u636e\u5f62\u5f0f\u7684\u5f62\u8c61\u9020\u4e86\u4e16\u754c\uff0c\u4f7f\u4e4b\u6210\u5f62 (formed the world)\u3002<\/p>\n

    Plato used theological terms to describe his idea of the Good and in reference to the \u201cDemiurge\u201d who formed the world in the image of the Forms.<\/p>\n

    \u4e9a\u91cc\u65af\u591a\u7279\u7684\u300e\u795e\u300fARISTOTLE\u2019S \u201cGOD\u201d <\/strong><\/p>\n

    \u4e9a\u91cc\u65af\u591a\u7279\u7528\u300e\u795e\u300f\u8fd9\u4e2a\u540d\u8bcd\u6765\u6307\u4ed6\u7684\u300e\u7b2c\u4e00\u52a8\u8005\u300f (Prime Mover)\u3002<\/p>\n

    Aristotle applied the term god <\/em>to his Prime Mover.<\/p>\n

    \u5b89\u745f\u4f26\/\u6709\u795e\u8bbaANSELM\/THEISM<\/strong><\/p>\n

    \u5b89\u745f\u4f26\u5bf9\u4e0a\u5e1d\u7684\u5b9a\u4e49\u662f\uff1a\u300e\u90a3\u5b58\u6709\uff0c\u6ca1\u6709\u4efb\u4f55\u4e8b\u7269\u7b49\u88ab\u60f3\u8c61\u4e3a\u6bd4\u4ed6\u66f4\u5927\u300f(that (being), than which nothing greater can be conceived)\uff1b\u4ed6\u6839\u636e\u300a\u5723\u7ecf\u300b\u6765\u4f5c\u5b9a\u4e49\u3002<\/p>\n

    Anselm defined God<\/em> as \u201cthat than which nothing greater can be conceived\u201d and defined that, in turn, in biblical terms.<\/p>\n

    \u6301\u6709\u7b26\u5408\u300a\u5723\u7ecf\u300b\u7684\u4e0a\u5e1d\u89c2\u7684\u00b7\u4eba\uff0c\u79f0\u4e3a\u300e\u6709\u795e\u8bba\u8005\u300f(theists)\u3002<\/p>\n

    People who hold a biblical view of God are called theists<\/em>.<\/p>\n

      \n
    1. \u77e5\u8bc6\u8bbaEPISTEMOLOGY<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

      \u300e\u77e5\u8bc6\u8bba\u300f\u5c31\u662f\u6709\u5173\u77e5\u8bc6\u7684\uff08\u54f2\u5b66\uff09\u7406\u8bba\u3002\u6240\u95ee\u7684\u95ee\u9898\u5305\u62ec\uff1a\u300e\u77e5\u8bc6\u662f\u4ec0\u4e48\uff1f\u300f\u300e\u77e5\u8bc6\u4e3a\u4ec0\u4e48\u53ef\u80fd\uff1f\u300f\u300e\u6211\u4eec\u8be5\u5982\u4f55\u8fdb\u884c\u8ba4\u77e5\uff1f\u300f\u300e\u6211\u4eec\u5e94\u8be5\u5982\u4f55\u5206\u8fa8\u771f\u4e0e\u5047\uff0c\u73b0\u5b9e\u548c\u5916\u8868\uff1f\u300f<\/p>\n

      Epistemology<\/em> is theory of knowledge.\u00a0 It asks: \u201cWhat is knowledge?\u201d\u00a0 \u201cHow is knowledge possible?\u201d\u00a0 \u201cHow should we go about knowing?\u201d\u00a0 \u201cHow do we distinguish truth from falsity, reality from appearance?\u201d<\/p>\n

      \u8ba4\u77e5\u7684\u4e3b\u9898\uff0c\u5ba2\u4f53\uff08\u5bf9\u8c61\uff09\uff0c\u548c\u51c6\u5219<\/strong><\/p>\n

      SUBJECT, OBJECT, NORM FOR KNOWLEDGE<\/strong><\/p>\n

      \u5178\u578b\u7684\u77e5\u8bc6\u8bba\u4f1a\u8ba8\u8bba\u77e5\u8bc6\uff08\u8ba4\u77e5\uff09\u7684\u4e3b\u4f53\uff08\u5c31\u662f\u4e00\u4e2a\u4f4d\u683c\uff09\uff0c\u77e5\u8bc6\u7684\u5ba2\u4f53\/\u5bf9\u8c61\uff08\u6240\u8ba4\u8bc6\u7684\u662f\u4ec0\u4e48\uff09\uff0c\u548c\u67d0\u4e00\u79cd\u51c6\u5219\uff0c\u7528\u4ee5\u51b3\u5b9a\u4e3b\u4f53\u662f\u5426\u771f\u6b63\u8ba4\u8bc6\u5ba2\u4f53\uff08\u5bf9\u8c61\uff09\u3002<\/p>\n

      Typically, philosophical epistemology deals with the subject <\/em>of knowledge (a person),\u00a0 an object <\/em>of knowledge (what he knows), and some sort of rule that determines whether the subject knows<\/em> the object.<\/p>\n

      \u67cf\u62c9\u56fe\uff1a\u77e5\u8bc6\u5c31\u662f\u80fd\u88ab\u89e3\u91ca\u7684\u6b63\u786e\u4fe1\u5ff5\uff08true belief with an account\uff09<\/strong><\/p>\n

      PLATO: KNOWLEDGE = TRUE BELIEF W\/ ACCOUNT<\/strong><\/p>\n

      \u67cf\u62c9\u56fe\u8bf4\uff0c\u77e5\u8bc6\u662f\u6709\u89e3\u91ca (an account) \u7684\u6b63\u786e\u4fe1\u5ff5\u3002<\/p>\n

      Plato described that rule as an account<\/em>, so he defined knowledge<\/em> as \u201ctrue belief with an account.\u201d<\/p>\n

      \u89e3\u91ca\uff0c\u7406\u7531\uff0c\u6839\u636eACCOUNT = JUSTIFICATION = WARRANT<\/strong><\/p>\n

      \u8fd1\u5e74\u6765\uff0c\u89e3\u91ca (account) \u88ab\u79f0\u4e3a\u6839\u636e\u6216\u7406\u7531 (justification or warrant)\u3002<\/p>\n

      More recently, the account has been called justification<\/em>, and still more recently, warran<\/em>t (Alvin Plantinga).<\/p>\n

      [2.1] \u77e5\u8bc6\u53ef\u80fd\u5417\uff08\u4eba\u6709\u53ef\u80fd\u8ba4\u77e5\u5417\uff1f\uff09IS KNOWLEDGE POSSIBLE?<\/strong><\/p>\n

      \u8ba8\u8bba\u77e5\u8bc6\u8bba\u7684\u54f2\u5b66\u5bb6\uff0c\u5bf9\u77e5\u8bc6\u662f\u5426\u53ef\u80fd\uff08\u5728\u4ec0\u4e48\u7a0b\u5ea6\u4e0a\u53ef\u80fd\uff09\uff0c\u610f\u89c1\u5206\u6b67\u3002<\/p>\n

      Epistemologists have differed over the question to what extent knowledge is possible.<\/p>\n

      \u6015\u95e8\u5c3c\u5fb7\uff1a\u77e5\u8bc6\u662f\u53ef\u80fd\u7684\u4e0d\u80fd\u8ba4\u77e5\u7684\u4e8b\u7269\uff0c\u4e0d\u53ef\u80fd\u5b58\u5728<\/strong><\/p>\n

      PARMENIDES: KN. = POSSIBLE; ANYTHING UNKNOWABLE COULDN\u2019T EXIST<\/strong><\/p>\n

      \u6015\u95e8\u5c3c\u5fb7\u5f88\u786e\u5b9e\u76f8\u4fe1\uff0c\u77e5\u8bc6\u662f\u53ef\u80fd\u7684\uff0c\u56e0\u6b64\uff0c\u82e5\u6709\u4efb\u4f55\u4e8b\u7269\u597d\u50cf\u4e0d\u80fd\u88ab\u8ba4\u77e5\uff0c\u5b83\u5c31\u4e0d\u53ef\u80fd\u5b58\u5728\u00b7\u3002<\/p>\n

      Parmenides was sure that knowledge was possible, so that if anything appeared unknowable, it could not exist.<\/p>\n

      \u8be1\u8fa9\u6d3e\uff1a\u6211\u4eec\u5e76\u6ca1\u6709\u4efb\u4f55\uff08\u5ba2\u89c2\u7684\uff0c\u666e\u904d\u6027\u7684\uff09\u77e5\u8bc6<\/strong><\/p>\n

      SOPHISTS: WE DON\u2019T HAVE ANY (OBJ., UNIV.) KNOWLEDGE<\/strong><\/p>\n

      \u4f46\u662f\u5e0c\u814a\u7684\u8be1\u8fa9\u6d3e\u4e0d\u76f8\u4fe1\u6211\u4eec\u6709\u4efb\u4f55\u77e5\u8bc6\uff0c\u81f3\u5c11\u5ba2\u89c2\u7684\uff0c\u666e\u904d\u6027\u7684\u77e5\u8bc6\u3002<\/p>\n

      But the Sophists denied that we had any knowledge, at least any knowledge that is objective and universal.<\/p>\n

      \u666e\u7f57\u6cf0\u6208\u62c9\u65af\u8ba4\u4e3a\uff1a\u771f\u7406\u53ea\u662f\u5bf9\u4e2a\u4eba\u6765\u8bf4\uff1b\u4eba\u662f\u4e07\u7269\u7684\u5c3a\u5ea6<\/strong><\/p>\n

      PROTAGORAS \u2013 ONLY TRUTH FOR THE INDIVIDUAL; MAN = MEASURE OF ALL THINGS<\/strong><\/p>\n

      \u5176\u4e2d\u4e00\u4f4d\u8be1\u8fa9\u6d3e\u8005\uff0c\u666e\u7f57\u6cf0\u6208\u62c9\u65af\uff0c\u8bf4\u300e\u4eba\u662f\u4e07\u7269\u7684\u5c3a\u5ea6\u300f\uff0c\u6307\u7684\u662f\u4e2a\u4eba\u3002\u5bf9\u4ed6\u6765\u8bf4\uff0c\u6ca1\u6709\u666e\u904d\u6027\uff08\u5b87\u5b99\u6027\uff09\u771f\u7406\uff0c\u6ca1\u6709\u653e\u4e4b\u56db\u6d77\u7686\u51c6\u7684\u771f\u7406\uff0c\u53ea\u6709\u300e\u5bf9\u4f60\u662f\u771f\u7406\u300f\u6216\u300e\u5bf9\u6211\u662f\u771f\u7406\u300f\u7684\u771f\u7406\u3002<\/p>\n

      One of them, Protagoras, said that \u201cman is the measure of all things,\u201d referring to the individual man.<\/p>\n

      For him there is no universal truth, nothing that is true for everybody only truth for the individual \u2013 truth<\/p>\n

      for me and truth for you.<\/p>\n

      \u7406\u6027\u4e3b\u4e49\u8005RATIONALISTS<\/strong><\/p>\n

      \u6709\u4e9b\u54f2\u5b66\u5bb6\u8f83\u4e3a\u4e50\u89c2\uff0c\u8ba4\u4e3a\u4eba\u80fd\u83b7\u77e5\u771f\u7406\uff1b\u4f8b\u5982\uff1a\u6015\u95e8\u5c3c\u5fb7\uff0c\u67cf\u62c9\u56fe\u3002\u4ed6\u4eec\u79f0\u4e3a\u300e\u7406\u6027\u4e3b\u4e49\u8005\u300f\u3002<\/p>\n

      Those who are optimistic about the prospect of knowing truth, such as Parmenides and Plato, are often called rationalists<\/em>.<\/p>\n

      \u6362\u8a00\u4e4b\uff0c\u4ed6\u4eec\u76f8\u4fe1\uff0c\u4eba\u7c7b\u7684\u7406\u6027\u662f\u6240\u6709\u4e8b\u7269\u7684\u771f\u5047\u7684\u81f3\u9ad8\u88c1\u5224\u5b98\uff0c\u56e0\u6b64\u5fc5\u5b9a\u662f\u53ef\u9760\u7684\u3002<\/p>\n

      That is, they believe that human reason is the final judge of what is true and false, and that therefore it is always trustworthy.<\/p>\n

      \u975e\u7406\u6027\u4e3b\u4e49\u8005\/\u6000\u7591\u4e3b\u4e49\u8005IRRATIONALISTS \/ SKEPTICS<\/strong><\/p>\n

      \u5176\u4ed6\u7684\u54f2\u5b66\u5bb6\uff0c\u4f8b\u5982\u8be1\u8fa9\u6d3e\uff0c\u5219\u5bf9\u4eba\u7684\u7406\u6027\u6ca1\u6709\u5982\u6b64\u4fe1\u5fc3\u3002\u4ed6\u4eec\u53ef\u88ab\u79f0\u4e3a\u300e\u975e\u7406\u6027\u4e3b\u4e49\u8005\u300f\uff0c\u6216\u300e\u6000\u7591\u4e3b\u4e49\u8005\u300f\u3002<\/p>\n

      Others, such as the Sophists, have less confidence in reason.\u00a0 They may be called irrationalists<\/em> or skeptics<\/em>.<\/p>\n

      [2.2] \u77e5\u8bc6\u7684\u6839\u57fa\uff1a\u7406\u6027\uff0c\u4e94\u5b98\u7ecf\u9a8c\uff0c\u4e3b\u89c2\u6027\uff08\u611f\u60c5\uff0c\u610f\u5fd7\uff0c\u76f4\u89c9\u7b49\uff09<\/strong><\/p>\n

      GROUND OF KNOWLEDGE:<\/strong><\/p>\n

      REASON, SENSE EXPERIENCE, SUBJECTIVITY (FEELINGS, WILL, INTUITION, ETC.)<\/strong><\/p>\n

      \u54f2\u5b66\u5bb6\u5728\u8ba8\u8bba\u77e5\u8bc6\u8bba\u65f6\uff0c\u5bf9\u300e\u77e5\u8bc6\u7684\u6839\u57fa\u300f\u7684\u610f\u89c1\u4e5f\u662f\u5206\u6b67\u7684\u3002<\/p>\n

      Epistemologists also differ as to the ground<\/em> of knowledge.<\/p>\n

      \u5728\u4e0a\u4e00\u6bb5\uff0c\u6211\u533a\u522b\u4e86\u4eba\u5185\u5fc3\uff08\u7cbe\u795e\uff09\u7684\u4e0d\u540c\u300e\u529f\u80fd\u300f\uff08\u8bd1\u8005\u6309\uff1a\u7406\u667a\uff0c\u611f\u89c9\uff0c\u610f\u5fd7\u7b49\uff09\u3002<\/p>\n

      In the previous section, I distinguished a number of \u201cfaculties\u201d of the human mind.<\/p>\n

      \u77e5\u8bc6\u8bba\u8ba8\u8bba\u8fd9\u4e9b\u529f\u80fd\u4e4b\u95f4\u7684\u4e92\u52a8\uff0c\u8fd9\u662f\u5f62\u800c\u4e0a\u5b66\u548c\u77e5\u8bc6\u8bba\u91cd\u53e0\u7684\u5176\u4e2d\u4e00\u4e2a\u8303\u56f4\u3002<\/p>\n

      Theories of knowledge discuss the interaction of these faculties, one of the overlaps between metaphysics and epistemology.<\/p>\n

      \u5bf9\u77e5\u8bc6\u6700\u57fa\u672c\u7684\u6839\u57fa\uff0c\u53ef\u80fd\u7684\u662f\uff1a\u7406\u667a\uff0c\u4e94\u5b98\u7ecf\u9a8c\uff0c\u548c\u6211\u4eec\u4e00\u822c\u7684\u4e3b\u89c2\u6027\uff08\u5305\u62ec\uff1a\u611f\u89c9\uff0c\u610f\u5fd7\uff0c\u76f4\u89c9\uff0c\u548c\u795e\u79d8\u7684\u6d1e\u89c1\uff09\u3002<\/p>\n

      In the quest for the most fundamental ground of knowledge, the main contenders are reason, sense experience, and our general subjectivity (including feelings, will, intuition, mystical insight).<\/p>\n

      \u7406\u6027\u4e3b\u4e49\u8005RATIONALISTS<\/strong><\/p>\n

      \u7406\u6027\u4e3b\u4e49\u8005\uff08\u89c1\u4e0a\uff09\u8ba4\u4e3a\u4eba\u7c7b\u7684\u7406\u667a\u5c31\u662f\u5224\u65ad\u6b63\u8bef\u7684\u6700\u9ad8\u88c1\u5224\u5b98\u3002<\/p>\n

      Rationalists<\/em> (see above) believe that human reason is the final judge of what is true or false.<\/p>\n

      \u7ecf\u9a8c\u4e3b\u4e49\u8005EMPIRICISTS<\/strong><\/p>\n

      \u7ecf\u9a8c\u4e3b\u4e49\u8005\uff0c\u4f8b\u5982\u6d1b\u514b\u548c\u4f11\u8c1f\uff0c\u5219\u8ba4\u4e3a\u4e94\u5b98\u7ecf\u9a8c\u662f\u77e5\u8bc6\u7684\u81f3\u9ad8\u88c1\u5224\u5b98\uff0c\u6240\u6709\u63a8\u7406(reasoning) \u90fd\u5fc5\u987b\u6839\u636e\u7ecf\u9a8c\u3002<\/p>\n

      Empiricists<\/em>, such as John Lock and David Hume, believe that sense experience has the ultimate word and that all reasoning must be based on that.<\/p>\n

      \u4e3b\u89c2\u4e3b\u4e49\u8005SUBJECTIVISTS<\/strong><\/p>\n

      \u4e3b\u89c2\u4e3b\u4e49\u8005\uff0c\u4f8b\u5982\uff1a\u5e0c\u814a\u8be1\u8fa9\u6d3e\u548c\uff08\u53ef\u80fd\uff09\u73b0\u4ee3\u5b58\u5728\u4e3b\u4e49\u8005\uff0c\u8ba4\u4e3a\u6211\u4eec\u5728\u81ea\u5df1\u91cc\u9762\u627e\u5230\u610f\u4e49\u548c\u77e5\u8bc6\u3002<\/p>\n

      Subjectivists<\/em>, such as the Sophists and perhaps modern existentialists, believe that we find meaning and knowledge within ourselves.<\/p>\n

        \n
      1. \u4ef7\u503c\u8bba\uff08\u4f26\u7406\u5b66\uff09VALUE THEORY<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

        \u4ef7\u503c\u8bba\u5305\u62ec\u4f26\u7406\u5b66\uff0c\u5ba1\u7f8e\u5b66\uff0c\u548c\u5176\u4ed6\u5bf9\u54f2\u5b66\u5bb6\u6709\u5174\u8da3\u7684\u4ef7\u503c\uff08\u4f8b\u5982\uff1a\u7ecf\u6d4e\u4ef7\u503c\uff09\u3002<\/p>\n

        Value theory<\/em>, or axiology<\/em>, includes ethics, aesthetics, and other kinds of value insofar as they are of interest to philosophers (e.g. some aspects of economic value).<\/p>\n

        \u5b83\u95ee\u7684\u95ee\u9898\u662f\uff1a\u300e\u6211\u4eec\u5e94\u8ba4\u4e3a\u54ea\u4e9b\u4ef7\u503c\u662f\u6700\u73cd\u8d35\uff1f\u300f\u8fd9\u5c31\u662f\u6709\u5173\u300e\u81f3\u5584\u300f(\u62c9\u4e01\u6587\uff1asummu bonum, \u82f1\u6587\uff1ahighest good) \u7684\u95ee\u9898\u3002<\/p>\n

        It asks, \u201cWhat should we value most highly?\u201d \u2013 the question of the summum bonum<\/em> or highest good.<\/p>\n

        \u8fd8\u6709\uff0c\u4ef7\u503c\u8bba\u5f53\u7136\u4f1a\u95ee\uff1a\u300e\u6211\u4eec\u8be5\u5982\u4f55\u4f5c\u4ef7\u503c\u5224\u65ad\uff1f\u300f<\/p>\n

        Also, of course, \u201cHow should we make value judgments?\u201d<\/p>\n

        \u300e\u4ef7\u503c\u662f\u5ba2\u89c2\u7684\u6291\u6216\u4e3b\u89c2\u7684\uff1f\u300f<\/p>\n

        \u201cAre values objective or subjective?\u201d<\/p>\n

        \u300e\u54ea\u4e9b\u4e8b\u7269\uff0c\u4e8b\u4ef6\u884c\u52a8\u662f\u5584\u6216\u6076\uff1f\u5bf9\u6216\u4e0d\u5bf9\uff1f\u300f\u7b49\u3002<\/p>\n

        \u201cWhat things, events, actions are good and bad?\u00a0 Right and wrong?\u201d, and so on.<\/p>\n

        \u6211\u7684\u5206\u6790\u662f\uff0c\u4e16\u4fd7\u4f26\u7406\u5b66\u5206\u4e09\u6d3e\uff1a\u4e49\u52a1\u8bba\uff0c\u76ee\u7684\u8bba\uff0c\u548c\u5b58\u5728\u4e3b\u4e49\u3002<\/p>\n

        In my analysis, there are three general types of secular ethics: deontologism, teleologism, and existentialism.<\/p>\n

        [3.1]\u4e49\u52a1\u8bbaDEONTOLOGISM<\/strong><\/p>\n

        \u300e\u4e49\u52a1\u8bba\u300f\u7684\u4f26\u7406\u5b66\uff08\u4f8b\u5982\uff1a\u5eb7\u5fb7\uff0c\u5728\u67d0\u7a0b\u5ea6\u4e0a\u67cf\u62c9\u56fe\u4e5f\u7b97\uff09\u8ba4\u4e3a\uff1a\u6211\u4eec\u5e94\u8be5\u6839\u636e\u300e\u4e49\u52a1\u300f\u6765\u4f5c\u6289\u62e9\u3002
        \nDeontological <\/em>ethicists such as Kant (and to some extent Plato) believe that we should make our decisions based on duty<\/em>.<\/p>\n

        [3.2]\u76ee\u7684\u8bba TELEOLOGISM<\/strong><\/p>\n

        \u300e\u76ee\u7684\u8bba\u300f\u7684\u4f26\u7406\u5b66\uff08\u4f8b\u5982\uff1a\u8fb9\u6c81\uff0c\u7c73\u52d2\uff0c\u5728\u67d0\u7a0b\u5ea6\u4e9a\u91cc\u65af\u591a\u7279\u4e5f\u7b97\uff09\u575a\u6301\uff1a\u6211\u4eec\u505a\u6289\u62e9\u65f6\uff0c\u9996\u5148\u5fc5\u987b\u51b3\u5b9a\u4e00\u4e2a\u9053\u5fb7\u76ee\u6807\uff08\u4e00\u822c\u6765\u8bf4\uff0c\u662f\u4e2a\u4eba\u6216\u7fa4\u4f53\u7684\u5feb\u4e50\uff09\uff0c\u7136\u540e\u5bfb\u627e\u6700\u597d\u8fbe\u5230\u8fd9\u4e2a\u76ee\u6807\u7684\u624b\u6bb5\u3002<\/p>\n

        Teleological<\/em> ethics (such as that of Bentham, Mill, and to some extent Aristotle) argues that we should make our decisions first by identifying an ethical goal (usually individual or corporate happiness), and then seeking the best means of reaching that goal.<\/p>\n

        [3.3] \u5b58\u5728\u4e3b\u4e49EXISTENTIALISM<\/strong><\/p>\n

        \u300e\u5b58\u5728\u4e3b\u4e49\u300f\u7684\u4f26\u7406\u5b66\uff08\u8be1\u8fa9\u6d3e\uff0c\u8428\u7279\uff09\u544a\u8bc9\u6211\u4eec\uff0c\u6211\u4eec\u53bb\u4f5c\u90a3\u4e9b\u6211\u4eec\u5fc3\u5e95\u91cc\u60f3\u8981\u4f5c\u7684\uff0c\u4ee5\u8868\u8fbe\u6211\u4eec\u771f\u5b9e\u7684\u81ea\u6211\u3002<\/p>\n

        Existential<\/em> ethics (Sophism, Sartre) tells us to do what we most want to do in our heart of hearts, to express what we really are.<\/p>\n

        \u6211\u5728\u672c\u4e66\u4e0d\u4f1a\u5e7f\u6cdb\u8ba8\u8bba\u4ef7\u503c\u8bba\uff0c\u56e0\u4e3a\u7bc7\u5e45\u6709\u9650\uff0c\u53e6\u5916\uff0c\u6211\u5728\u300a\u57fa\u7763\u6559\u4f26\u7406\u5b66\u300b\uff08\u8bd1\u8005\u6309\uff1a\u539f\u8457\u4e66\u540d\uff1aDoctrine of the Christian Life<\/em>\uff0c\u4e2d\u6587\u4e66\u540d\u4e43\u7531\u8bd1\u8005\u547d\u540d\uff0c\u6709\u53e3\u8bd1\u89c6\u9891\uff09\u5bf9\u54f2\u5b66\u7684\u4f26\u7406\u5b66\u6709\u4ed4\u7ec6\u7684\u8ba8\u8bba\uff1a\u975e\u57fa\u7763\u6559\u7684\u4f26\u7406\u5b66\uff0c\u5728\u7b2c5-8\u7ae0\uff1b\u57fa\u7763\u6559\u7684\u4f26\u7406\u54f2\u5b66\uff0c\u5728\u7b2c9-21\u7ae0\u3002<\/p>\n

        I will not be discussing value theory to a great extent in this book, because I need to conserve space, and I have discussed ethical philosophy in some detail in DCL<\/em>: non-Christian ethics in chapters 5-8, Christian ethical philosophy in chapters 9-21.<\/p>\n

        \u4f46\u8ba9\u8bfb\u8005\u4eec\u6ce8\u610f\uff08\u5728\u4e0b\u4e00\u6bb5\uff09\uff0c\u4f26\u7406\u5b66\u4e0e\u5f62\u800c\u4e0a\u5b66\u548c\u77e5\u8bc6\u8bba\u7684\u6574\u5408\u662f\u5f88\u91cd\u8981\u7684\u3002<\/p>\n

        But the reader should take note (in the following section) of the importance of integrating metaphysics and epistemology with ethics.<\/p>\n

        \u6211\u5728\u672c\u4e66\u524d\u524d\u540e\u540e\u90fd\u4f1a\u5f3a\u8c03\u8fd9\u4e00\u70b9\u3002<\/p>\n

        I will be emphasizing that point throughout this book.<\/p>\n

        ccnci.org\u4e2d\u534e\u5c55\u671b\u5723\u7ea6\u5b66\u9662 HorizonCovenant@gmail.com\uff08PayPal\uff09<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

        [IV] \u54f2\u5b66\u7684\u4e3b\u8981\u5206\u652f\uff08\u8303\u56f4\uff09\uff1a\u5f62\u800c\u4e0a\u5b66\uff0c\u77e5\u8bc6\u8bba\uff0c\u4f26\u7406\u5b66\uff08\u4ef7\u503c\u8bba\uff09 SUBDIVISIONS OF PHIL […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_et_pb_use_builder":"","_et_pb_old_content":"","_et_gb_content_width":"","footnotes":""},"categories":[125],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-10162","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-125"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/ccnci.org\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts\/10162","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/ccnci.org\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/ccnci.org\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/ccnci.org\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/ccnci.org\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fcomments&post=10162"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/ccnci.org\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts\/10162\/revisions"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/ccnci.org\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fmedia&parent=10162"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/ccnci.org\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fcategories&post=10162"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/ccnci.org\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Ftags&post=10162"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}