[IV] 哲学的主要分支（范围）：形而上学，知识论，伦理学（价值论）
SUBDIVISIONS OF PHILOSOPHY (8-13)
- 形而上学：对『存有』的研究METAPHYSICS: THE STUDY OF BEING (VS. NON-BEING)
让我对上一段提到的，哲学三个范围，再多说一些。
Let me say some more about the three subjects mentioned in the previous section.
『形而上学』研究宇宙最普遍性的特点(most general features)。
Metaphysics is the study of the most general features of the universe.
哲学家有时称之为『对存有本身的研究』，或『把存有视为存有』来研究 (study of being qua being)。
Philosophers have sometimes called it “the study of being itself” or “the study of being qua being.”
换言之，其他学科，包括科学，探索不同类型的存有（存在物），各种存有，但是哲学所问的是：一般来说（按着它的本质来说），『存有』是什么意思？当然，与『非存有』(non-being) 有别，『存有』是什么意思。
That is to say, other disciplines including the sciences explore different sorts of beings, various types of beings or various kinds of beings, but philosophy asks what is meant by being in general, in distinction, of course, from non-being.
这是一些艰巨的问题。
This is a difficult set of questions.
黑格尔提议我们做一个思想的实验：闭起眼睛，想『存有』；然后再闭起眼睛，想『非存有』。
Hegel proposed this thought-experiment: close your eyes and think of being; then close your eyes and think of non-being.
注意到有何不同？
Notice any difference?
情况似乎是，当我们想到『非存有』时，我们在想『某一个事物』（something, 某一个存在物），因此事实上是在想『存有』。
It seems that whenever we try to think of non-being, we are thinking of something, and therefore of being.
当我们试图为『非存有』下定义，或列出哪些不是『存有』的事物时，同样的事会发生。
Same when we try to define non-being, or list things that are not beings.
我们如此作的时候，它们都是某些事物（things of some kind）。
When we do that, they all turn out to be things of some kind.
例如：独角兽并不在森林里存在，但却在文学里存在。
Unicorns, for example, don’t exist in jungles, but they do exist in literature.
但是，『存有』若不能与『非存有』区别出来，它（存有）怎能是任何存在物？ (How can it be anything?)
If being cannot be distinguished from non-being, however, how can it be anything at all?
然而，哲学家们勇敢地面对这些显然不可能解决的问题，是值得钦佩的。
Yet philosophers should be admired for their courage in fielding such apparent impossible questions.
[ 译者按。范泰尔则没有这么客气；他会说，哲学家们如此作时，乃出自认为自己是无所不知的，因为他们在探索一些绝对，自存的事物。]
[ Translator: Van Til would critique these questions concerning aseity or something absolute as stemming from mankind’s sense of their own omnipotence. ]
形而上学包括这个问题：『为什么有些存有物存在，而不是什么都不存在？』(Why is there something rather than nothing?) 海德格尔认为，这是哲学界中最核心的问题。
Metaphysics includes the question: “why is there something rather than nothing?” – which Heidegger thought was the most central question of all philosophy.
形而上学也问有关目前存有的配置的问题：『事物为什么是如此的？』(Why are things the way they are?) 和『实在（现实世界）最基本的特质是什么？』 (What are the most basic features of reality?)。
It also asks about the present configuration of being: “why are things the way they are?” And “what are the most basic features of reality?”
哲学家对形而上学的关注和体会（重视），是五花八门的。
Philosophers have varied in their appreciation of and interest in metaphysics.
自从康德以降，不少世俗的哲学家摒弃形而上学，视之为无根据的猜测。
Since Kant, many secular philosophers have rejected metaphysics as baseless speculation.
二十世纪的语言分析学家往往会说，哲学唯一的功能就是澄清语言（字词），并说哲学家没有办法超越科学的方法，去知道宇宙的结构。
The language analysts of the twentieth century often said that the only function of philosophy was to clarify language, that philosophers had no means to know the structure of the universe beyond the methods of science.
但有些语言分析学家不同意这样的判断，他们认为，当我们仔细分析我们的语言时，会显示出一些形而上真理。
But some of the analysts differed with this assessment, saying that a careful analysis of our language in fact reveals metaphysical truths.
[注脚底十九。例如斯特劳逊，《个人》一书。]
[ Footnote 19. One example is Peter F. Strawson, Individuals: An Essay in Descriptive Metaphysics (London: Methuen, 1959). ]
而过程哲学 (process philosophy) 至今仍然热烈讨论形而上学。
And process philosophy carries on a vigorous discussion of metaphysics to this day.
形而上学家讨论的问题，和提供的答案
QUESTIONS DISCUSSED BY METAPHYSICIANS, & THEIR ANSWERS
形而上学家所讨论的个别问题，和提供的答案，包括下列：
Specific questions discussed by metaphysicians, and their varying answers, include these:
[1.1] 一元论；多元论；二元论；一元与多元并存
MONISM, PLURALISM, DUALISM; BOTH UNITY & PLURALITY
宇宙是『一』，抑或是『众』？
Is the universe one or many?
怕门尼德，普罗提诺，斯宾诺萨，和黑格尔认为：在世界一切表面的『众』的背后，存在着一个『一』，宇宙就『是』这个『一』。
Parmenides, Plotinus, Spinoza, and Hegel said that beneath all the apparent plurality in the world there is a oneness, and the world is that oneness.
这些哲学家被称为『一元论者』。
These are called monists.
其他的·哲学家，例如德谟克里特，莱布尼兹，和早期的维根斯坦，认为世界是由细小的零件组成的，它们彼此有别，每一件都不能被约化成更小的事物。
Others, such as Democritus, Leibniz, and the early Wittgenstein, thought that the world was made of tiny components, distinct from one another and each irreducible to anything else.
他们被称为『多元论者』。
These are called pluralists.
再有其他的哲学家，称为『二元论者』，坚持宇宙有两个大概同等（同样地终极）的实在（存有物）组成；典型的说法是，一个是善的，一个是恶的，两者争取至高的地位。
Still others, known as dualists, hold that the world is made up of two more or less equally ultimate realities; typically one is good and the other is evil, and they fight for supremacy.
例如：波斯的拜火教 (Zoroastrianism) 和摩尼教 (Manichaeanism) 的一些派别，它们都影响早期基督教。
Examples of this are found in the Zoroastrian religion and the Manichaean sects that sought influence among early Christians.
[ 译者按。不论是华人，韩国人或美国人，有不少保守派的传道人和教派宣传：宇宙历史的意义，基本是上帝与魔鬼的斗争；上帝整个救赎计划就是和魔鬼争取人的灵魂。这种说法乃显示拜火教和摩尼教的影响。]
还有其他中间立场。
There are also other mediating positions.
例如有些哲学家，例如亚里斯多特和洛克，持一种常识性的观点：宇宙有各种的事物，这些事物可以根据一些普遍性范畴（概念）来理解，因此：宇宙有『一』也有『众』。
Some philosophers, such as Aristotle and Locke, have held the common-sense view that there are many things in the world, but that these things can be understood in general categories, so that the universe has both unity and plurality.
[1.2] 唯心或唯物？物质（唯物）主义：
宇宙万物都是水？空气？火？数字？原子？物质？
或：形式和物质的结合？
IDEALISM OR MATERIALISM?
MATERIALISM: ALL IS WATER, AIR, FIRE, NUMBER, ATOMS, MATTER?
OR FORM & MATTER COMBINED?
宇宙最基本由什么组成？
What is the basic composition of the universe?
泰雷兹说『水』；
阿那西美希说『空气』；
阿纳克萨格拉斯说『某某不确定事物』；
赫拉克利特说是『火』，
毕达哥拉斯说是『数字』。
Thales said water, Anaximenes air, Anaxagoras something “indefinite,” Heraclitus fire, Pythagoras number.
德谟克拉特认为宇宙乃是由细小的，不能灭绝的物质『原子』所组成。
Democritus thought the world was composed of tiny, indestructible material bits called atoms.
他们，和后来的马克思，被称为『唯物论者』，因为他们相信，宇宙的一切事物，本质上都是物质的。
These, and later thinkers such as Karl Marx, are called materialists, because they believed that everything in the world is material in nature.
柏拉图和亚里斯多特认为，宇宙是由『物质』和『形式』结合。
Plato and Aristotle said that the world is a combination of matter and form.
唯心主义：宇宙万物都是精神（思想）；泛神论：宇宙是上帝
IDEALISM: WORLD IS MIND; PANTHEISM: WORLD IS GOD
伯克莱，莱布尼兹，和黑格尔认为：宇宙是精神 (mind)，而物质是幻觉。
Berkeley, Leibniz, and Hegel said that the world is mind and that matter is an illusion.
这个观点被称为『唯心主义』。
This view is called idealism.
普罗提诺，斯宾诺萨，和黑格尔认为宇宙有神性（是神圣的），这个观点称为『泛神论』。
Plotinus, Spinoza, and Hegel said that the world is divine, a view called pantheism.
[1.3] 共相真正存在？抑或：只有殊相？
UNIVERSALS = REAL? ONLY PARTICULARS?
共相真正存在的吗？抑或，只有殊相存在？
Are universals real, or only particulars?
共相 UNIVERSALS
在我们语言（用词）中，有些字词指一般性，或抽象的实在，例如：红颜色，三角形，人性，美德。这称为『共相』。
In our language, some terms refer to general or abstract realities: redness, triangularity, manhood, virtue. These are called universals.
殊相PARTICULARS
共相与殊相是对立的；后者指个别的事物，例如：这个人，这棵树，这块饼干，这熊。
They are contrasted with particulars, which refer to individual things: this man, this tree, this cookie, this bear.
唯名论者：只有殊相存在NOMINALISTS: ONLY PARTICULARS EXIST
有些哲学家（例如：奥卡姆的威廉）认为，只有殊相存在。
Some philosophers (as William of Occam) have said that only particulars exist.
他们称为『唯名论者』，因为他们说，共相只不过是名字，是我们用来『一下子同时指很多殊相』的字而已。
These are called nominalists, for they say that universals are only names, words by which we refer to a lot of particulars at once.
唯实论者：共相个别地存在REALISTS: UNIVERSALS EXIST DISTINCTLY
其他的哲学家（例如：柏拉图，亚里斯多特）认为，共相有自己独特的存在（若不是如此，这些共相的词汇是什么意思？）。
Others (Plato, Aristotle), say that universals have a distinct existence (if they don’t, what do such universal terms mean?).
他们被称为『唯实论者』。
These are called realists.
他们中间有人（例如：柏拉图）会质疑，物质的事物究竟是否真正存在，因此他们相信：唯有共相是真实的(only universals are real)。
Some of these, such as Plato, questioned whether material things have any reality at all, so they believed that only universals are real.
共相在哪里存在？另一个世界里？这个世界里？在上帝的思想里？
WHERE DO UNIVERSALS EXIST? ANOTHER WORLD? IN WORLD? IN GOD’S MIND?
在那些认为共相真实存在的哲学家中间，他们对：『共相在哪里存在？』持不同的看法。
共相在另一个世界中存在（柏拉图）？
共相乃是这个世界的一个组成部分（component, 亚里斯多特）？
存在在上帝的思想里（奥古斯丁）？
Among those who think universals exist, there is some disagreement as to where they exist: In another world (Plato)? As a component of things in this world (Aristotle)? In God’s mind (Augustine)?
[1.4] 宇宙不断变动？不变？
有些事物不变（形式）；有些事物变动（物质）？
UNIVERSE = CHANGING? STATIC?
SOME THINGS (FORM) = UNCHANGING; SOME THINGS (MATTER) = CHANGING?
宇宙中的事物在变动中？抑或：他们是不动的？
Do things in the universe change, or are they static?
怕门尼德认为：宇宙是完全不变的。
Parmenides said that the universe was entirely unchanging.
赫拉克利特则持相反意见，认为：万物不断在变动中(constantly in flux)。
Heraclitus said the opposite, that everything was constantly changing, in flux.
柏拉图和亚里斯多特认为：有些事物不变（形式），其他事物则变动（物质）。
Plato and Aristotle taught that some things were unchanging (forms), others constantly changing (matter).
[1.5] 自然界和历史：有目的？抑或没有目的？
NATURE & HISTORY: IS THERE A GOAL? NO GOAL?
自然界和历史的事件，是否朝着一个目标前进（目的论）？抑或他们就是这样发生，没有理由，没有方向？
Do the events of nature and history work toward goals (teleology), or do they simply occur, without any rationale or direction?
柏拉图，特别是亚里斯多特认为：自然界的进程是『有目的』的(teleological)，每一个动作 (motion) 或过程都有其目的。
Plato and especially Aristotle taught that the course of nature was teleological, that every motion or process had a purpose.
罗素和萨特则否认有任何目的存在，除了：人类自己制造了这些目的。
Bertrand Russell and Jean-Paul Sartre denied that any purposes exist, except those that human beings themselves create.
[1.6] 因果如何关联？决定主义，随意自由意志
HOW DO CAUSE & EFFECT RELATE? DETERMINISM VS. LIBERTARIAN FREEDOM
『因』和『果』之间有何关联？
What is the connection between cause and effect?
有些哲学家，例如德谟克里特，霍布斯，和斯宾诺萨，是『决定主义者』 (determinists)，意即：他们认为每一个事件都必然因为另一个事件而发生，因此存在着一个无情（必然）的成因链。
Some, like Democritus, Hobbes and Spinoza, have been determinists: that is, they taught that every event is necessitated by another event, forming an inexorable causal chain.
伊比鸠鲁，早期教会教父，笛卡尔，亚米念，怀特黑德，和其他哲学家则持一种『随意自由观』：人类有能力作一些行动，是没有其他事件作成因的。
Epicurus, the Church Fathers, Descartes, Arminius, Whitehead, and others have held to a view of libertarian freedom in which human beings are capable of performing acts that are not caused by other events.
休谟认为：因果之间，并不存在着必然关联 (necessary connection)。
David Hume denied that there was any necessary connection between cause and effect.
康德认为这个关联是存在的，但它是由人的理性施加的，并不存在在自然界。
Immanuel Kant said that there was such a connection, but that the connection is imposed by the human mind, not to be found in nature.
[1.7] 人有灵魂吗？Do human beings have souls?
人类有灵魂吗？除了身体以外，有理智/精神 (mind) 吗？
Do human beings have souls? Minds distinct from their bodies?
柏拉图说『有』，后来大部分传统基督徒也同意，例如：奥古斯丁和阿奎那。
Plato said yes, followed by most traditional Christians, such as Augustine and Aquinas.
笛卡尔也同意。
Descartes agreed.
但是亚里斯多特认为灵魂乃是『身体的形式』。
Aristotle, however, said that the soul is “the form of the body.”
泰雷兹，伊比鸠鲁，霍布斯，马克思，和罗素都是唯物论者，相信所有事件都可以用物质和动态(matter and motion) 解释。
Thales, Epicurus, Thomas Hobbes, Karl Marx, and Bertrand Russell were materialists, believing that all events can be explained in terms of matter and motion.
从唯物的观点来看，非物质的灵魂并不存在。
On this view, there is no immaterial soul.
若有什么被称为灵魂之物，可能是物质的（斯多亚派），或是身体的一个层面。
If there is something that we can call soul, it is either material (the Stoic view), or an aspect of the body.
[1.8] 人类的理性如何运作？应该如何运作？
How does the human mind operate? How should it?
哲学家们也在人类思想和经验的不同范围作不同的区别：理智，意志，感情，想象，记忆，直觉，察觉，理念，印象，等等。
Philosophers have made various distinctions within the sphere of human thought and experience: intellect, will, emotions, imagination, memory, intuition, perception, ideas, impressions, and so on.
理智主义者INTELLECT – INTELLECTUALISTS
理智主义者，例如柏拉图，阿奎那，笛卡尔，黑格尔，克拉克，相信：当人的理智正常运作时，人精神里所有层面都服从理智的指挥。
Intelletualists (such as Plato, Aquinas, Descartes, Hegel, Gordon H. Clark) believe that when the mind is working properly, all aspects of the mind are subject to the intellect.
意志主义者WILL – VOLUNTARISTS
意志主义者，例如：司可脱，奥卡姆，叔本华，尼采等认为：当人相信某某事物时，往往需要一个选择，一个意志的行动。
Voluntarists (Duns Scotus, William of Occam, Arthur Schopenhauer, Friedrich Nietzsche) note that believing something often if not always requires a choice, a decision of will.
对他们来说，意志是最基本的，不是理智。
For them, will, not intellect, is fundamental.
主观主义者FEELINGS – SUBJECTIVISTS
主观主义者，例如：希腊的诡辩派，休谟，谢林，和士莱马赫，认为理智跟从感觉，或应该如此。
Subjectivists (such as the Sophists, Hume, Schelling, and Schleiermacher) believe that the mind does and
should follow its feelings.
其他微妙的理论 OTHER SOPHISTICATED THEORIES – INTERACTION BET. FACULTIES
还有其他哲学家，发展微妙的理论，处理这些『功能』（理智，感情，意志等）之间的互动。
Others develop more sophisticated theories of the interaction of these “faculties.”
[9] 有神存在吗？Is there a god?
正如我上文说过，从最重要的意义来看，世界上没有无神论者。
As I said earlier, in the most important sense there are no atheists.
怎样的神存在？WHAT KIND OF GOD IS THERE?
但是究竟怎样的神存在？哲学家意见分歧。
But there are great differences among philosophers as to what kind of god there is.
宇宙就是神：泛神论
WORLD = GOD – PANTHEISM
有些哲学家，例如色诺芬，斯宾诺萨，和黑格尔，认为宇宙就是神。（这个观念称为泛神论。）
Some, such as Xenophanes, Spinoza, and Hegel, believed that the world was god. (That view is called pantheism.)
万物都在神里：超泛神论 (panentheism)
EVERYTHING IS IN GOD – PANENTHEISM
Whitehead， Hartshorne 认为：宇宙本身是神圣（具有神性）的，是上帝的一个层面；但是上帝又（不晓得如何）比宇宙更大。这观点成为超泛神论(panentheism)。
Whitehead and Hartshorne believed that the world is divine, an aspect of god, but that god was somewhat more than the world. (That view is called panentheism, “everything is in god.”)
自然神论DEISTS
有些十七，十八世纪的思想家声称：上帝创造了世界，任凭它根据『自然定律』运作，上帝从那时再不介入世界。他们称为『自然神论者』。
Some seventeenth- and eighteenth-century thinkers held that God created the world to run according to “natural laws” and never again intervened. They are called deists.
柏拉图的『神』PLATO’S “GOD”
柏拉图使用神学名词形容他的『善』的概念，也用神学词汇指『造物工匠』(the Demiurge)，后者根据形式的形象造了世界，使之成形 (formed the world)。
Plato used theological terms to describe his idea of the Good and in reference to the “Demiurge” who formed the world in the image of the Forms.
亚里斯多特的『神』ARISTOTLE’S “GOD”
亚里斯多特用『神』这个名词来指他的『第一动者』 (Prime Mover)。
Aristotle applied the term god to his Prime Mover.
安瑟伦/有神论ANSELM/THEISM
安瑟伦对上帝的定义是：『那存有，没有任何事物等被想象为比他更大』(that (being), than which nothing greater can be conceived)；他根据《圣经》来作定义。
Anselm defined God as “that than which nothing greater can be conceived” and defined that, in turn, in biblical terms.
持有符合《圣经》的上帝观的·人，称为『有神论者』(theists)。
People who hold a biblical view of God are called theists.
- 知识论EPISTEMOLOGY
『知识论』就是有关知识的（哲学）理论。所问的问题包括：『知识是什么？』『知识为什么可能？』『我们该如何进行认知？』『我们应该如何分辨真与假，现实和外表？』
Epistemology is theory of knowledge. It asks: “What is knowledge?” “How is knowledge possible?” “How should we go about knowing?” “How do we distinguish truth from falsity, reality from appearance?”
认知的主题，客体（对象），和准则
SUBJECT, OBJECT, NORM FOR KNOWLEDGE
典型的知识论会讨论知识（认知）的主体（就是一个位格），知识的客体/对象（所认识的是什么），和某一种准则，用以决定主体是否真正认识客体（对象）。
Typically, philosophical epistemology deals with the subject of knowledge (a person), an object of knowledge (what he knows), and some sort of rule that determines whether the subject knows the object.
柏拉图：知识就是能被解释的正确信念（true belief with an account）
PLATO: KNOWLEDGE = TRUE BELIEF W/ ACCOUNT
柏拉图说，知识是有解释 (an account) 的正确信念。
Plato described that rule as an account, so he defined knowledge as “true belief with an account.”
解释，理由，根据ACCOUNT = JUSTIFICATION = WARRANT
近年来，解释 (account) 被称为根据或理由 (justification or warrant)。
More recently, the account has been called justification, and still more recently, warrant (Alvin Plantinga).
[2.1] 知识可能吗（人有可能认知吗？）IS KNOWLEDGE POSSIBLE?
讨论知识论的哲学家，对知识是否可能（在什么程度上可能），意见分歧。
Epistemologists have differed over the question to what extent knowledge is possible.
怕门尼德：知识是可能的不能认知的事物，不可能存在
PARMENIDES: KN. = POSSIBLE; ANYTHING UNKNOWABLE COULDN’T EXIST
怕门尼德很确实相信，知识是可能的，因此，若有任何事物好像不能被认知，它就不可能存在·。
Parmenides was sure that knowledge was possible, so that if anything appeared unknowable, it could not exist.
诡辩派：我们并没有任何（客观的，普遍性的）知识
SOPHISTS: WE DON’T HAVE ANY (OBJ., UNIV.) KNOWLEDGE
但是希腊的诡辩派不相信我们有任何知识，至少客观的，普遍性的知识。
But the Sophists denied that we had any knowledge, at least any knowledge that is objective and universal.
普罗泰戈拉斯认为：真理只是对个人来说；人是万物的尺度
PROTAGORAS – ONLY TRUTH FOR THE INDIVIDUAL; MAN = MEASURE OF ALL THINGS
其中一位诡辩派者，普罗泰戈拉斯，说『人是万物的尺度』，指的是个人。对他来说，没有普遍性（宇宙性）真理，没有放之四海皆准的真理，只有『对你是真理』或『对我是真理』的真理。
One of them, Protagoras, said that “man is the measure of all things,” referring to the individual man.
For him there is no universal truth, nothing that is true for everybody only truth for the individual – truth
for me and truth for you.
理性主义者RATIONALISTS
有些哲学家较为乐观，认为人能获知真理；例如：怕门尼德，柏拉图。他们称为『理性主义者』。
Those who are optimistic about the prospect of knowing truth, such as Parmenides and Plato, are often called rationalists.
换言之，他们相信，人类的理性是所有事物的真假的至高裁判官，因此必定是可靠的。
That is, they believe that human reason is the final judge of what is true and false, and that therefore it is always trustworthy.
非理性主义者/怀疑主义者IRRATIONALISTS / SKEPTICS
其他的哲学家，例如诡辩派，则对人的理性没有如此信心。他们可被称为『非理性主义者』，或『怀疑主义者』。
Others, such as the Sophists, have less confidence in reason. They may be called irrationalists or skeptics.
[2.2] 知识的根基：理性，五官经验，主观性（感情，意志，直觉等）
GROUND OF KNOWLEDGE:
REASON, SENSE EXPERIENCE, SUBJECTIVITY (FEELINGS, WILL, INTUITION, ETC.)
哲学家在讨论知识论时，对『知识的根基』的意见也是分歧的。
Epistemologists also differ as to the ground of knowledge.
在上一段，我区别了人内心（精神）的不同『功能』（译者按：理智，感觉，意志等）。
In the previous section, I distinguished a number of “faculties” of the human mind.
知识论讨论这些功能之间的互动，这是形而上学和知识论重叠的其中一个范围。
Theories of knowledge discuss the interaction of these faculties, one of the overlaps between metaphysics and epistemology.
对知识最基本的根基，可能的是：理智，五官经验，和我们一般的主观性（包括：感觉，意志，直觉，和神秘的洞见）。
In the quest for the most fundamental ground of knowledge, the main contenders are reason, sense experience, and our general subjectivity (including feelings, will, intuition, mystical insight).
理性主义者RATIONALISTS
理性主义者（见上）认为人类的理智就是判断正误的最高裁判官。
Rationalists (see above) believe that human reason is the final judge of what is true or false.
经验主义者EMPIRICISTS
经验主义者，例如洛克和休谟，则认为五官经验是知识的至高裁判官，所有推理(reasoning) 都必须根据经验。
Empiricists, such as John Lock and David Hume, believe that sense experience has the ultimate word and that all reasoning must be based on that.
主观主义者SUBJECTIVISTS
主观主义者，例如：希腊诡辩派和（可能）现代存在主义者，认为我们在自己里面找到意义和知识。
Subjectivists, such as the Sophists and perhaps modern existentialists, believe that we find meaning and knowledge within ourselves.
- 价值论（伦理学）VALUE THEORY
价值论包括伦理学，审美学，和其他对哲学家有兴趣的价值（例如：经济价值）。
Value theory, or axiology, includes ethics, aesthetics, and other kinds of value insofar as they are of interest to philosophers (e.g. some aspects of economic value).
它问的问题是：『我们应认为哪些价值是最珍贵？』这就是有关『至善』(拉丁文：summu bonum, 英文：highest good) 的问题。
It asks, “What should we value most highly?” – the question of the summum bonum or highest good.
还有，价值论当然会问：『我们该如何作价值判断？』
Also, of course, “How should we make value judgments?”
『价值是客观的抑或主观的？』
“Are values objective or subjective?”
『哪些事物，事件行动是善或恶？对或不对？』等。
“What things, events, actions are good and bad? Right and wrong?”, and so on.
我的分析是，世俗伦理学分三派：义务论，目的论，和存在主义。
In my analysis, there are three general types of secular ethics: deontologism, teleologism, and existentialism.
[3.1]义务论DEONTOLOGISM
『义务论』的伦理学（例如：康德，在某程度上柏拉图也算）认为：我们应该根据『义务』来作抉择。
Deontological ethicists such as Kant (and to some extent Plato) believe that we should make our decisions based on duty.
[3.2]目的论 TELEOLOGISM
『目的论』的伦理学（例如：边沁，米勒，在某程度亚里斯多特也算）坚持：我们做抉择时，首先必须决定一个道德目标（一般来说，是个人或群体的快乐），然后寻找最好达到这个目标的手段。
Teleological ethics (such as that of Bentham, Mill, and to some extent Aristotle) argues that we should make our decisions first by identifying an ethical goal (usually individual or corporate happiness), and then seeking the best means of reaching that goal.
[3.3] 存在主义EXISTENTIALISM
『存在主义』的伦理学（诡辩派，萨特）告诉我们，我们去作那些我们心底里想要作的，以表达我们真实的自我。
Existential ethics (Sophism, Sartre) tells us to do what we most want to do in our heart of hearts, to express what we really are.
我在本书不会广泛讨论价值论，因为篇幅有限，另外，我在《基督教伦理学》（译者按：原著书名：Doctrine of the Christian Life，中文书名乃由译者命名，有口译视频）对哲学的伦理学有仔细的讨论：非基督教的伦理学，在第5-8章；基督教的伦理哲学，在第9-21章。
I will not be discussing value theory to a great extent in this book, because I need to conserve space, and I have discussed ethical philosophy in some detail in DCL: non-Christian ethics in chapters 5-8, Christian ethical philosophy in chapters 9-21.
但让读者们注意（在下一段），伦理学与形而上学和知识论的整合是很重要的。
But the reader should take note (in the following section) of the importance of integrating metaphysics and epistemology with ethics.
我在本书前前后后都会强调这一点。
I will be emphasizing that point throughout this book.
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